Fresco:
history and painting technique

Fresco is the oldest type of monumental painting, done with water-based paints on fresh, damp plaster. The name comes from the Italian "fresco" - "fresh". When dried, the lime contained in the plaster forms a thin transparent calcite film, which makes the image durable. Fresco technique has existed for several millennia and developed in different regions of the world, leaving mankind with priceless works of art.

The Origins of Fresco Painting

The exact date of the appearance of frescoes is unknown, but archaeological finds indicate that already in the 2nd millennium BC, during the Aegean culture, fresco painting was widespread. The Minoan civilization, which existed on the island of Crete, left behind striking examples of wall painting with images of marine fauna, ritual scenes and everyday episodes.

Frescoes from the Palace of Knossos in Crete, such as the "Ladies in Blue" and "The Parisian Woman", are distinguished by their bright colors and expressive images. The Minoans used a technique similar to alsecco, where glue or casein was used as a binder.

Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia and Phoenicia also had their own traditions of wall painting using lime. Lime mixtures were used not only for artistic purposes, but also to create moisture-resistant putties in the construction of aqueducts and hydraulic structures.

High-quality lime mixtures were used in residential and palace buildings of the Aegean culture, which served as a ground for wall paintings. However, even they are conditionally classified as frescoes as "on wet", since there are significant technological differences from the classical fresco technique that developed later.

Antique fresco painting

In the ancient world, fresco painting reached a high level of mastery. The availability of materials (lime, sand, colored minerals), the relative simplicity of the technique, and the durability of the works determined the popularity of fresco paintings in Ancient Greece and Rome.

Particularly valuable for the study of ancient fresco painting are the finds in the cities buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD - Pompeii, Herculaneum and the surrounding villas. Thanks to the volcanic ash that preserved these cities, numerous frescoes with preserved bright colors have survived to this day.

Pompeii was discovered by chance at the beginning of the 17th century during the construction of an aqueduct. The city gradually freed itself from the volcanic cover, and the world saw unique examples of ancient fresco painting. It is a paradox, but the eruption that destroyed the city preserved it for centuries and brought it worldwide fame.

The frescoes of Pompeii amaze with their preservation and the brightness of their colours even after thousands of years. According to researchers, local artists used a special technique, the secret of which has not been fully unraveled to this day. The simplicity and at the same time virtuosity of the frescoes amazed Renoir himself, who visited Pompeii in 1881.

Roman frescoes were created not only for aesthetic pleasure, but also had a practical function - they visually expanded the space of rooms, made interiors lighter and airier. In conditions of limited natural light, this was especially important.

Four Styles of Pompeian Painting

Researchers identify four main styles of Pompeian painting, which reflect the evolution of fresco technique and artistic preferences in Roman society:

1. The first style (2nd - 1st centuries BC) is inlay, imitating wall cladding with colored marble. It is characterized by geometric shapes and bright local colors.
2. The second style (1st century BC) is architecturally perspective, creating the illusion of space by depicting architectural elements in perspective. The walls seem to move apart, revealing views of landscapes, cities, and sanctuaries.
3. The third style (late 1st century BC – mid 1st century AD) is ornamental or candelabra. The wall is perceived as a plane decorated with elegant ornaments, miniature landscapes and mythological scenes.
4. The fourth style (mid-late 1st century AD) is fantastic or illusionistic. It combines elements of previous styles with fantastic architectural forms, creating complex decorative compositions.

Fresco in medieval art

During the Middle Ages, fresco painting became the most important form of monumental art in the Christian world. In Byzantium, fresco acquired particular importance, especially during the decline of the empire, when the creation of expensive mosaics became economically difficult.

Byzantine frescoes were distinguished by their strict canonical character, the subordination of the image to architecture and theological ideas. They depicted religious scenes, conveying the spiritual and cultural values of their time. Notable examples include the frescoes of the Church of Evangelistria in Geraki and the Church of Christ the Savior in the Fields.

Fresco as a means of visually conveying religious subjects became a reflection of the cultural context of Byzantine society. It performed an important didactic function, clearly depicting biblical subjects for the illiterate population.

Frescoes of Ancient Rus’

In Ancient Rus, monumental painting appeared with the adoption of Christianity under Princes Vladimir (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). Over the centuries, Russian masters adopted the art of the "Greeks" (as the Byzantines who spoke Greek were called).

The technique of wall painting in Ancient Rus’ was mainly mixed - painting with water-based paints on wet plaster was supplemented by tempera-glue technique with various binders (egg, animal and vegetable glues). Backgrounds and upper paintings were often done in the alsecco technique.

To decorate Kyiv churches with mosaics, a special workshop was built where smalt of various colors was made. The compositions in the dome and apse were made in the mosaic technique, as the most expensive and complex, and the rest of the temple was painted with frescoes.

The frescoes of Kyiv’s Sophia Cathedral, created during the time of Yaroslav the Wise, are the most valuable monuments of ancient Russian art. At the zenith of the central dome, in a medallion, there was a huge half-length image of Christ the Almighty, and around it were four archangels.

The Rise of Fresco in the Renaissance

In Europe during the Renaissance, mastery of the art of mural painting became one of the most important measures of an artist’s skill. It was in Italy during this period that fresco painting reached its highest development.

During the early Renaissance, fresco painting became extremely widespread. Most Italian artists of this period were fresco painters. The reforms of fresco painting, initiated by Giotto di Bondone, became a school for generations of Italian artists.

Monasteries competed to invite famous artists. Masterpiece frescoes covered the walls of both old, still Gothic buildings, and new buildings in the provinces and artistic centers. Frescoes decorated churches, palaces, chapels, public buildings, both facades and interiors.

The subjects of the frescoes were varied: scenes from the Old Testament (for example, the Creation of Adam), episodes from the life and passion of Christ (the Annunciation, the Last Supper, the Crucifixion), allegories (the Allegory of Wise Rulership), mythical characters (Hercules, the Sibyls), battle scenes and historical events.

During the High Renaissance, such great masters of fresco as Raphael (Vatican stanzas) and Michelangelo (painting of the Sistine Chapel) worked. The fresco technique required a confident hand, fast work and a clear idea of the composition from the artist. In one day, the master had to manage to paint a certain section of the wall before the plaster dried.

The term "buon fresco" or "pure fresco" first appeared in a treatise by the Italian artist Cennino Cennini (1437), where he described a technique for painting on fresh plaster. This technique differed from the earlier al secco (painting on dry) and became the main method for creating monumental works in the Renaissance.

One of the most important aspects of creating a fresco during the Renaissance was dividing the work into giornata, sections that the artist could paint in a single day. In Masaccio’s famous fresco "Holy Trinity," twenty-four giornata can be discerned. If you look closely at the fresco from top to bottom, you can see the different sections that were painted in a single day.

Technical aspects of creating frescoes

Types of fresco technique

There are three main types of fresco technique, each of which has its own characteristics and applications:

1. Buon fresco (Italian: buon fresco - real fresco) is the most common method, involving the use of pigments mixed only with water, without a binder. The paints are applied to a thin layer of wet, fresh lime plaster (intonaco). The pigment is absorbed into the plaster and when it dries, it becomes part of it, which ensures the durability of the painting.
2. Al secco (Italian: al secco - on the dry) is painting on dry plaster using a binding agent. Unlike buon fresco, it requires a binding medium (for example, egg tempera, glue or oil) to attach the pigment to the wall. This technique was used, for example, in Leonardo da Vinci’s "The Last Supper". Al secco gives a gain in tempo, allowing you to paint a larger area of the surface in a working day than with fresco painting, but is a less durable technique.
3. Mezzo fresco (Italian: mezzo fresco - half-fresco) is painting on dried, but not yet completely dry plaster. The pigment only partially penetrates the plaster. By the 17th century, this technique had largely replaced buon fresco on walls and ceilings.

Alsecco is also called casein and silicate painting on dried plaster. It is used to perform work on both internal and external surfaces of buildings. The technique allows subsequent adjustments with tempera and rinsing with clean water.

Materials for creating a fresco

The following materials are traditionally used to create a fresco:

• High quality lime (CL 90 or higher according to European standard EN 459-1)
• Sand of varying grain sizes (from coarse for the lower layers to fine for the final layer)
• Natural pigments resistant to lime
• Water for mixing solutions and paints
• Tools: brushes, spatulas, trowels, rulers, plumb lines

The fresco palette is quite restrained. Paints that do not enter into chemical compounds with lime are used for it. Traditionally, natural earth pigments (ochres, umbers), as well as mars, blue and green cobalt were used. Copper paints were used less often due to their chemical activity.

The process of creating a fresco

Surface preparation

The first stage of creating a fresco is preparing the wall. First, a layer of "gobetis" is applied - a rough plaster to level the surface. Then, no earlier than a week later, a layer of "arriccio" is applied - a second layer of plaster about 1 cm thick, consisting of two parts sand and one part air lime.

The arrico serves to maintain the moisture for the subsequent layer of intonaco, so that the painting time is extended as much as possible. Before applying the arrico, the gobetis is generously moistened with water for several days. After applying the arrico, its surface is roughened for better adhesion to the next layer.

Creating a preparatory drawing

On the prepared surface of the arrico, the artist creates a preparatory drawing - sinopia. The name comes from the red paint made from iron oxide mined near the city of Sinop on the Black Sea. It is the only red pigment known to the artists of antiquity.

Sinopia was widely used by Italian fresco painters until the beginning of the 16th century, when it was replaced by the technique of pressing a preparatory drawing from “tracing paper” onto wet plaster using a powder - charcoal powder was applied to the wall through punctures, leaving a dotted outline.

Application of intonaco and painting

The final layer of plaster is intonaco - a thin layer (5-7 mm) on which painting is applied. Intonaco is applied in small sections - giornata, which the artist can paint in one day, while the plaster is still wet.

Giornata (Italian: giornata, meaning "day’s work") is an important term in buon fresco technique, describing how much painting can be done in one working day. This amount is based on the artist’s past experience, taking into account how much he can paint in the hours that the plaster remains wet and the pigment can adhere to the wall.

Knowing how much can be painted in a day is crucial in the buon fresco technique. Typically, the plaster is applied in such a way as to match the outline of the figure or object in the painting so that the daytime segments are not noticeable.

After applying the intonaco, the artist immediately begins painting, using pigments mixed only with water. The work requires speed and precision, since corrections are only possible by removing the unsuccessful section of plaster and applying a new layer.

When the artist finishes work for the day, excess plaster is scraped off to prevent it from drying. This process allows the artist to begin work the next morning with fresh, wet plaster ready for painting.

As it dries, the lime in the plaster reacts with carbon dioxide from the air to form calcium carbonate, which creates a strong crystalline structure that binds the pigments. This process is called carbonation, and it ensures the longevity of the fresco.

Finishing works

After the main painting had dried, the artist could make some additions using the alsecco technique. Details such as small ornaments or highlights were often added in tempera on the already dry fresco. This allowed for greater detail and the use of colors that were unstable in the alkaline environment of fresh lime plaster.

Fresco in the context of world art

Fresco painting has remained one of the main types of monumental art for thousands of years. It decorated the walls of temples, palaces and public buildings, conveying religious, historical and cultural themes from different eras.

The socio-cultural significance of the fresco

In ancient Rome, frescoes served not only a decorative but also a social function, demonstrating the status and taste of the owner of the house. For the Romans, art was primarily a means aimed at educating the ideal Roman citizen.

The activities of Julius Caesar, Octavian Augustus, and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa can be used to study the emergence of protomuseum forms in the Roman Empire. Analyzing the difference in the perception of art by the Greeks and Romans, researchers come to the conclusion that for the latter, the aesthetic function of art was not of primary importance.

In Christian art, fresco became a favorite way to decorate the interior and (less often) exterior walls of a stone church. It performed an important didactic function, clearly depicting biblical stories for the illiterate population - it was a kind of "Bible for the illiterate".

During the Renaissance, fresco wall decoration acquired special significance in the interiors of Renaissance palazzos. The magnificence of the rooms was achieved not by means of rich furniture, but by means of decorative decoration of the walls, ceiling and floor. Frescoes became an integral part of the architectural space, emphasizing and enhancing its aesthetic impact.

Fresco painting in the art of different regions

In addition to the European tradition, fresco painting developed in other cultures. In India, for example, ancient frescoes have been preserved in the cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, created between the 2nd century BC and the 7th century AD. These paintings, made in a technique close to alsecco, depict scenes from the life of Buddha and Buddhist parables.

Fresco painting also occupied an important place in Armenian medieval art. Despite the fragmentary preservation of artistic material and the erroneous idea of the negative attitude of the Armenian Church towards images, research shows a rich tradition of monumental painting in Armenia.

Thanks to a deep study of both the frescoes themselves and medieval written sources, scientists were able to demonstrate the main paths of development of Armenian wall painting, identify artistic trends and national characteristics, and determine the characteristics of decorative programs and iconographic variants.

In the modern world, interest in the traditional fresco technique does not fade. Many artists turn to this ancient art, finding in it new opportunities for creative self-expression. Fresco painting in a modern interior, private or public, can create a unique atmosphere and emphasize the individuality of the space.

Preservation and restoration of frescoes

Preserving frescoes is a difficult task due to their vulnerability to environmental influences. Humidity, temperature fluctuations, air pollution and mechanical damage can cause irreparable damage to these works of art.

After World War II, methods of successive separation of layers of monumental painting (stacco and strappo) were developed, which made it possible to save many frescoes that were in danger of being destroyed. These methods also made it possible to discover and study sinopias, which deepened the understanding of the process of fresco creation.

The stacco method involves removing the paint layer along with a thin layer of plaster, while the strappo method involves removing only the paint layer. These technologies have made it possible to transfer frescoes from the walls of crumbling buildings to museums and provide them with proper storage conditions.

Modern methods of fresco restoration are based on the principle of minimal intervention and reversibility. Restorers strive to preserve the authenticity of the work by using materials compatible with the original and documenting all stages of the work.

An important aspect of fresco preservation is the creation of optimal environmental conditions. Control of temperature, humidity and lighting helps to slow down the degradation of the paint layer and plaster base.

Pliny the Elder on Painting and Frescoes

One of the most important sources on the history of ancient painting is the work of the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder, Natural History, especially its 35th book. Pliny examines the history of painting, mentions various techniques and methods of artistic craft, and also reflects on the educational potential of art.

Pliny the Elder describes the origins of painting, mentions the term monochromatos (monochrome painting) and its connection with the history of ancient Greek painting. He also provides valuable information about the ancient artistic schools, especially the Sicyonian school.

Pliny pays much attention to the artist Pamphilus as the founder of the practice of teaching painting in all ancient Greek schools. He also analyzes the difference in the perception of art by the Greeks and Romans, which helps modern researchers better understand the context of the development of fresco painting in the ancient world.

Technical innovations and the evolution of fresco

The fresco technique did not remain unchanged - it evolved over the centuries, adapting to new aesthetic requirements and technological possibilities. In different regions of the world, masters developed their own variations of the classical technique, enriching the world’s artistic heritage.

In Ancient Rus’, for example, the technique of wall painting was predominantly mixed - painting with water-based paints on wet plaster was supplemented by tempera-glue technique with various binders (egg, animal and vegetable glues). Backgrounds and upper paintings were often done in the alsecco technique.

During the Renaissance, Italian masters perfected the buon fresco technique, achieving incredible mastery in conveying volume, space, and light-air environment. They developed a complex system of preparatory drawings and cardboards, which allowed them to accurately plan the composition and save time when working on wet plaster.

With the development of chemistry and technology in the 19th and 20th centuries, new pigments and binders appeared, expanding the palette of frescoes. However, masters often preferred to work with traditional materials, appreciating their time-tested qualities and aesthetic possibilities.

In contemporary art, fresco continues to live, acquiring new forms and meanings. Artists experiment with technique, combining traditional methods with modern materials and approaches, which allows this ancient art to remain relevant in the 21st century.

Fresco is one of the oldest and most durable techniques of monumental painting, which has come a long way from primitive images in ancient civilizations to masterpieces of the High Renaissance and modern experimental works. The technical features of fresco, requiring speed, precision and a deep understanding of materials from the artist, made it a special kind of art, accessible only to true masters.

For thousands of years, frescoes have served not only aesthetic but also important social, religious and didactic functions. They reflected the worldview of the era, served as a means of transmitting knowledge and values, and shaped the visual culture of society.

Modern research and restoration work allow us to better understand the technical and artistic aspects of fresco painting, to preserve this priceless layer of world cultural heritage for future generations. And the constant interest of artists and the public in this ancient technique testifies to its enduring value and relevance in the world of art.