Illustrations on heraldic shields:
history and meaning

Heraldic shields are a visual identification system that emerged in Western Europe in the 12th century. These emblematic devices appeared on seals around 1120–1150, first on gonfanons and then on shields. Their original function was to distinguish knights on the battlefield, where full armor obscured their faces and bodies.

The emergence of the heraldic tradition

The earliest material evidence of 12th-century heraldry is considered to be an enamel from the Musée de Tessé in Le Mans, France, created no earlier than 1151. It depicts Geoffrey IV of Anjou holding a shield given to him by his father-in-law. The shield is blue with golden lions standing on their hind legs. Seals bearing heraldic devices, dating from 1136, have survived to this day.

The origins of coats of arms are associated with various regions of Western Europe. According to researcher Michel Pastoureau, coats of arms appeared throughout Western Europe between 1120 and 1160. Their spread was particularly rapid in England and the regions between the Loire and the Rhine. Jean-François Nieu counts seventeen armorial seals before 1150 and thirty-three before 1160.

The use of seals began among Anglo-Norman lords in the 1130s. In the vast region from Brittany to Flanders, seals became commonplace even among middle-class lords. From the 1140s, the heraldic seal spread geographically throughout southern Europe. Around 1155, Raymond V of Toulouse and Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, used heraldic symbols on their seals and coins.

Practical principles of the emergence of shield images

The origins of shield painting date back to antiquity. The ancient Greeks and Romans already decorated their shields with individual symbols. In the early Middle Ages, patterns remained simple — often geometric shapes or single-colored areas. Over time, the designs became increasingly complex.

A real breakthrough occurred with the rise of chivalry in the 11th and 12th centuries. In the chaotic battles of that period, it became crucial to quickly distinguish friend from foe. Colorful shield paintings served precisely this purpose. Knights began decorating their shields with personal symbols to identify themselves on the battlefield.

Tournaments provided the perfect platform for displaying magnificent coats of arms. Over time, coats of arms appeared not only on shields but also on banners, clothing, and buildings. Knights carried their coats of arms on their shields and horse blankets, which served as important identifiers for the crowd. Coats of arms were placed where the knights slept and on a special tree at the tournament site, where the coats of arms of all participants were hung.

Heralds — official officers trained to recognize coats of arms — played an important role at tournaments. They announced the name of each knight and explained their heraldic symbols to the crowd. This was especially important in tournaments involving knights from different regions or countries.

Basic elements of heraldic shields

Shield field and its divisions

Each description of a coat of arms begins with a description of the field — the background of the shield. In most cases, this is a single tincture, such as azure (blue). If the field is complex, a variation is described, followed by the tinctures used, such as checkered red and white.

The field could be divided in various ways: per pale (vertically), per bend (diagonally), per fesse (horizontally). When dividing the field, the distinction between the lines — whether serrated, engraved, or otherwise — had to be indicated.

Tinctures: Metals and Colors

Heraldry recognizes seven basic tinctures, consisting of two metals and five colors. The metals are or (gold or yellow) and argent (silver or white). The colors are gules (red), azure (blue), vert (green), sable (black), and purpure (purple). The use of these tinctures dates back to the formative period of European heraldry in the 12th and 13th centuries.

In medieval heraldry, gules was the most common tincture, followed by the metals argent and or. Among colors, sable was the second most common, followed by azure. The most important convention of heraldry is the rule of tincture. To ensure contrast and visibility, metals should not be placed on metals, and colors should not be placed on colors. For example, a green star on blue or a white flower on yellow are unacceptable.

Ordinaries

Ordinaries are simple geometric shapes that form the basis of many coats of arms. The main ordinaries include:

The fess is a horizontal stripe across the center of the shield, representing the military belt and honor belt of the ancients. It signifies that the bearer must always be ready to act for the welfare of the people. Theoretically, it occupies a full third of the shield’s height.

The Chief is a wide stripe at the top of the shield, denoting authority and dominance of will. The Chief was often regarded as a special reward for prudence and wisdom, as well as for successful command in war. Theoretically, it comprises the upper third of the shield.

Pale is a vertical stripe running down the shield, denoting greater defensive military force. The word "pale" originally referred to a stake, and it is from this resemblance that the heraldic pale gets its name.

Cross - a combination of pale and fess of equal width, as in the coat of arms of London.

Bend - a diagonal stripe across the shield.

Chevron is a V-shaped form, one of the main ordinaries along with bend, fess and chief.

Heraldic charges and their symbols

Charges are emblems added to the shield on the ground, ordinarius, or both. There may be one large charge or several smaller, repeating ones. Common charges include crosses of various types, stars, rings, globes, crescents, diamonds, and flowers.

Animals in heraldry

Animals, especially lions and eagles, figure prominently as heraldic charges. The lion, considered the king of beasts, is the most frequently used animal in heraldry. The eagle, also considered the king of birds, is the most common among birds. The rivalry between these two animals has often been noted as a parallel to the political rivalries between the powers they represented in medieval Europe.

In Heinrich von Feldeke’s heroic poem based on the story of Aeneas, the bearer of the lion is contrasted with the bearer of the eagle. If the latter is considered the historical and geographical predecessor of the Holy Roman Emperor, then the bearer of the lion represents the rebellious feudal lords to whom the emperor was forced to make ever greater concessions.

The eagle was a symbol of men of action, engaged in high and important affairs. It was given to those possessing a lofty spirit, ingenuity, quick perception, and discernment in complex matters. The wings signified protection, and the grasping talons symbolized the death of wicked people. The eagle represents a noble nature due to its strength and aristocratic appearance, as well as its association with the ancient kings of Persia, Babylon, and the Roman legions.

Plant symbols

The fleur-de-lis — a stylized lily — became one of the most recognizable heraldic symbols. This symbol had French royal origins and may have originated from the baptismal lily used at the coronation of King Clovis I around 481–509. The French monarchy may have adopted the fleur-de-lis for the royal coat of arms as a symbol of purity, commemorating the conversion of Clovis I.

Louis VI and Louis VII of the Capetian House began using the emblem on their scepters in the 12th century. Louis VII ordered the use of a fleur-de-lis at the coronation of his son Philip in 1179. The first visual evidence of its clearly heraldic use dates back to 1211.

During the reign of King Louis IX (Saint Louis), the flower’s three petals came to symbolize faith, wisdom, and chivalry and were considered a sign of divine favor bestowed upon France. In the 14th century, the tradition of Trinity symbolism became established and then spread to other places. The three petals of the heraldic design reflect the widespread association with the Holy Trinity, with the ribbon at the bottom symbolizing Mary.

The rose, thistle, and shamrock were used as national heraldic emblems. The rose symbolized the English component, the thistle the Scottish, and the shamrock the Irish. These floral symbols represented the ethnic origins of the population and the presence of indigenous peoples.

Geometric and abstract charges

Rings symbolized fidelity, loyalty, and the continuity of a legacy. These charges were often used to represent unbreakable bonds of trust and honor. Balls or spheres could represent globes, cannonballs, or orbs, each conveying meanings ranging from worldly power and authority to military valor and fortitude.

The border — the border framing the edge of the shield — signified honor and could be used to denote alliances and distinctions in family lineage. The pile — a downward-pointing triangle or wedge — symbolized military strength and fortitude, like the tip of a spear.

Development of heraldic systems in different regions

Anglo-French heraldry

The use of cadent marks to distinguish coats of arms within a single family and the use of semy fields are distinctive features of Gallo-British heraldry. The use of heraldic furs is also common. In Britain, the style is still controlled by the Queen’s Officers of Arms. English heraldry makes greater use of supporters than other European countries.

French heraldry also experienced a period of strict design regulations under Emperor Napoleon. Between 1135 and 1155, seals show the general adoption of heraldic devices in England, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy.

German heraldic tradition

The German heraldic tradition is characterized by a limited use of heraldic furs and a strong connection between the crest and shield. Repetition of symbols on both the shield and crest is also characteristic. In German heraldry, stars or mullets have six rays, as opposed to the five rays of Gallo-British heraldry.

There are numerous differences in detail, notably significantly fewer colours (no stains) and a stricter tincture rule (no adjacent colour-colour or metal-metal), different proportions, restrictions on traditional charges, and a lack of legal regulation.

Blazon: the language of heraldic description

A blazon is a formal description of a coat of arms, from which the reader can reconstruct an exact image. The basic conventions of a blazon are as follows: each description of a coat of arms begins with a description of the field, beginning with a capital letter, followed by a comma.

The principal ordinary or charge is described along with any other charges placed on or around it. If the charge is a bird or beast, its position is determined, followed by the creature’s tincture, and then anything that might be colored differently.

The description must be clear and in the correct terms, with nothing missing that should be stated, and nothing stated that can be safely omitted. The field must be listed first. If the field is divided, the division should be mentioned first, with a distinction made between the lines.

The number of mullets and rays of estoiles or stars must be indicated when there are more than five. Also, if a mullet or any other charge is pierced, this fact must be mentioned. When subordinate ordinaries or general charges are placed anywhere on the field except the center, the point from which they emanate must be named.

Techniques for creating heraldic illustrations

Medieval manuscripts and illuminations

Once the text was completed, the illustrator set to work. Complex designs were planned in advance, likely on wax tablets — the writing pads of the era. The designs were then transferred or drawn onto parchment, perhaps using pin pricks or other marks.

Many unfinished manuscripts survive from most periods, providing a good understanding of the working methods. The word "illuminated" comes from the Latin illuminare, meaning "illuminated." For a book to be truly illuminated, it had to be decorated with gold. Gold was usually applied to the pages in extremely thin sheets called gold leaf.

Medieval manuscript decoration included small painted scenes (called miniatures), intricate borders, ornamental chapter letters, and even complex full-page paintings. Such decorations illustrated the text and helped people navigate it. Paintings were especially important because in medieval times, many people, even those who owned manuscripts, could not read.

When the scribe finished writing, the illuminator began painting the illustrations and decorations. First, gold or silver was applied — a process called gilding. The illuminator applied small, delicate sheets of gold or silver foil using wet glue, then polished them with a smooth stone or even a dog’s tooth. Then the paintings, border decorations, and ornamental letters were painted with paints made from natural pigments.

Rolls of weapons

The first treasures of heraldic art were the Rolls of Arms. These spectacular pieces were pieces of parchment sewn together into long strips, on which coats of arms were depicted. A white shield was the emblem most often used on coats of arms associated with painters’ and artists’ guilds in the medieval period. It was used singularly, but was more often repeated three times. A blank shield was emblematic of a shield awaiting painting, indicating that heraldic art was an important support in the work of early artists.

Borders and marginalia

Borders were used in manuscripts to frame the text and provide cohesion to the page. They could be made using pigment and gold or drawn with a simple pen (usually red or blue ink). Borders could be full or partial and could appear in the left, right, top, and bottom margins, as well as between two columns of text on the page.

Another characteristic of medieval manuscript illumination was the use of marginalia. These additions were typically found within and around decorative borders of the text. Marginalia found in medieval manuscripts often contained unique, special messages and details, indicating the precision and care invested in their production.

Marginalia shaped the way the text was read and influenced the reader’s interaction with it. The placement of these embellishments and messages encouraged the reader to explore beyond the physical book to interpret the text from multiple perspectives. Marginalia ranged from intricate decorative illustrations to those considered highly unusual.

Complete Heraldic Achievement

A coat of arms itself is simply a shield or escutcheon. When it is drawn together with a crest and, if applicable, supporters and all other elements, it results in what is known as a "heraldic achievement." A motto is added at the owner’s discretion, but is a common addition.

Shield as a base

The shield is the core of heraldic achievement. It is the primary element on which heraldic symbols are displayed. The shape of the shield varied depending on the period and region. Traditionally, men had a shield and crest, while women had only a shield (of a different shape).

Helmet and crest

A helmet was placed above the shield, indicating the wearer’s status. The helmet was surmounted by a crest for distinction. The crest was especially important in Germanic tradition, where there was a strong connection between the crest and the shield.

Mantling

A mantling is a decorative element extending from a helmet, symbolizing protection. This element evolved from the practical use of fabric for sun protection and became a decorative part of a heraldic achievement.

Supporters

Supporters were reserved for a select few. The addition of supporters to heraldic achievements was due to grants to the highest nobility and institutions. This practice arose in the 14th century and was reserved for individuals of high status to avoid diluting heraldic exclusivity.

Supporters reinforced the grandeur of an achievement, often chosen to represent family alliances or virtues. Their introduction highlights how heraldry served as a tool for political and social empowerment among the elite.

Motto

A motto was often placed beneath the shield, usually depicted as an inscription on a strip of paper "floating" beneath the shield. This is something added solely at the discretion of the bearer of the coat of arms, and there are no rules determining whether a motto can be included or not. Mottos became common in the late medieval period, often as war cries.

Social and cultural significance

Identification and status

Heraldry was not only practical for identification but also served as a demonstration of social status, noble birth, and personal achievements. Sometimes coats of arms included legendary figures or stories, adding a theatrical element to tournaments and battles.

In addition to the financial barrier, knights now had to prove their lineage, as the entire event became an exercise in aristocratic display, with heralds proclaiming and embodying the participant’s heritage on banners and their coats of arms. Coats of arms were displayed where the knights slept and on a special tree at the tournament site, where the coats of arms of all participants were hung.

Some knights could be excluded from the tournament if they had a bad reputation. Perhaps this is why some knights preferred to participate anonymously.

Heredity and family identity

Before the creation of coats of arms, hereditary emblems were used by some major noble families, particularly in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, and Flanders. These were used in the first coats of arms, but at the same time, feudal coats of arms on banners developed.

Seals show that many great lords used two coats of arms — either personal or those associated with their fief. They then gradually chose one or the other, or adopted new coats of arms.

The practice of wearing family coats of arms and arms began to spread among nobles and knights in the 12th century. Lions, eagles, crosses, and geometric shapes were common symbols on shields and surcoats (long, sleeveless shirts tied at the waist and worn over armor). As more knights adopted coats of arms to identify themselves, their designs had to become more complex to distinguish them from one another.

Burghers and heraldry

The use of heraldic symbols was not limited to the nobility. Burghers in the early modern Kingdom of Hungary used coats of arms, or more accurately, personal heraldic devices. Research reveals insights into the use of coats of arms by burghers, including questions about the heredity of burgher devices and the elevation of burghers to nobility from a heraldic perspective.

Heraldry and the Church

The seals of ecclesiastical institutions and dignitaries have become an important source of research in the fields of medieval iconography, hagiography, heraldry, and art history in general. This study examines the evolution and metamorphosis of motifs that appeared on provost seals from the 13th to the 15th centuries.

A unique lead seal-matrix bearing the inscription "LUCIANI PRESBITERI," which belonged to a priest, was found near a Romanesque castle church. Its owner’s name is mentioned in written sources from 1325 to 1327. Particularly noteworthy is the fleur-de-lis design surmounted by a cross, engraved on the obverse of the seal, which resembles a heraldic device. The repetition of a schematic lily flower on the reverse of the matrix demonstrates the special significance of this symbol (identified in medieval times with the Blessed Virgin Mary).

Heraldic images in various contexts

Mongolian "imaginary heraldry" in French miniatures

The study of the "imaginary heraldry" imparted to the Mongols by French miniaturists of the 14th and 15th centuries is a little-studied topic. The research is based on the approach of the American art historian M.A. Camillus, who suggests studying not what "really" existed, but what was introduced into the situation described by medieval scribes.

Mongolian heraldry is represented by shields and banners. Each element has its own color — red, orange, blue, yellow. The following heraldic symbols have been identified: the dragon, the six-pointed star, the crescent, the two-pronged tamga, the "king’s head," lilies, the "Star of David," and various geometric shapes.

Color symbolism in medieval manuscripts

Color symbolism in manuscripts has always been a rich source for studying diverse cultural and religious histories. In manuscript art, colors were used not only to create an ideal reality but also to give meaning to illustrations. Color symbolism is an essential part of both religious and secular art, but the meaning and symbolism can be distinct.

The metaphorical use of colors, their similarities, comparisons and expressionistic style had different impacts in two diverse works of art belonging to mystical, religious and emerging time periods.

Technical aspects of creating heraldic images

Materials and pigments

Natural pigments were used to create heraldic illustrations. Analysis of materials and techniques used for medieval manuscripts reveals the use of various pigments and techniques. Non-invasive and portable techniques, such as energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence, allow us to characterize the paint palettes and techniques of various artists.

Element-specific distribution maps generated by macro-X-ray fluorescence scanning provide cultural heritage researchers with information about the composition of materials present in works of art. One of the advantages of macro-XRF scanning is that X-rays examine materials in subsurface layers, allowing for the creation of visualizations of hidden patterns.

Preliminary drawings

Preliminary drawings made by manuscript illuminators to plan painted compositions — known as underdrawings — provide evidence regarding the artists’ creative vision and workflow. They are difficult to study because they are usually hidden beneath the surface layer of paint.

Traditionally, carbon-based underdrawings are visualized using infrared imaging. Macro XRF scanning can visualize underdrawings in other materials, such as iron gall inks.

Modern meaning and continuation of traditions

Some modern uses of the fleur-de-lis reflect "the continued presence of heraldry in everyday life," often intentionally, but also when users are unaware that they are "extending the life of centuries-old insignia and emblems." Heraldic flowers and botanical symbols continue to be used, including the fleur-de-lis, maple leaf, thistle, trefoil, rose, tulip, daisy, and others.

Heraldry served as an important communication tool in a world of diverse languages and dialects. In the Middle Ages, when the masses were illiterate and the outside world was often unknown and incomprehensible, images and visuals provided a secure and coherent support for those who witnessed it. Iconography as a means of nonverbal communication was often used by the Church, but people also communicated through images.