History of the Arabic language:
from classical to modern dialects Automatic translate

Arabic, one of the most widely spoken Semitic languages, has undergone a long evolutionary process spanning over fifteen hundred years. Originating in the pre-Islamic period and flourishing after the rise of Islam, Arabic has undergone many transformations while maintaining its internal structure and cultural significance. Today, it exists as a linguistic continuum that includes Modern Standard Arabic and numerous dialects spoken throughout the Middle East and North Africa. This article explores the historical development of Arabic, its evolution from its classical form to its modern dialectal variations, and its cultural and political significance in the history of world civilization.

Pre-Islamic period of Arabic language

The origins of the Arabic language go back to ancient times, long before the advent of Islam. Archaeological and linguistic research shows that various forms of Arabic existed on the Arabian Peninsula as early as the first millennium BC.

Early evidence and origins

Pre-classical Arabic is a general term for all varieties of Arabic spoken in the Arabian Peninsula before the advent of Islam and the emergence of Classical Arabic in the 7th century CE. The earliest known evidence of Arabic is a bilingual inscription found in Bayir, Jordan, written in Early Arabic and Canaanite.

Arabic is a Central Semitic language, making it related to Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. It differs from them in a number of linguistic innovations, including a distinctive system of negative particles, specific prepositions and adverbs, a subjunctive ending in -a, and the distinctive use of the particle f- to introduce modal clauses.

Contrary to popular belief, pre-Islamic Arabs did not live in complete isolation from other peoples. Throughout their early history, Arabs interacted extensively with neighboring civilizations, which was reflected in the development of their language. Epigraphic and archaeological studies show that Arabic came into contact with a variety of neighboring languages, including Aramaic, Old South Arabian, Canaanite, and Greek.

Tribal dialects and language situation

Before the advent of Islam, the linguistic situation in the Arabian Peninsula was extremely diverse. Various Arab tribes spoke their own dialects, which were generally considered a "pure language" (lisan fasih). The dialects of the western Hijaz region and the eastern Bedouin tribes of Tamim were considered particularly prestigious.

The tribes of Arabia maintained their dialects not only as a means of communication, but also as a symbol of tribal identity and pride. When the different tribes met in trade and religious centers such as Mecca, a mixture of dialects occurred. Gradually, from these interactions, the first form of a common language emerged, known as the "poetic or literary koine."

Early Arabic philologists often turned to speakers of tribal dialects as sources of linguistic information. Nomads (a’rab) often acted as informants and even arbitrators in linguistic disputes between scholars.

Ancient Arabic script

The Arabic script has a long history of development. According to research, it originates from the Nabataean alphabet, which in turn developed from Aramaic. The Nabataeans, the Arabs who created a state centered in Petra (modern Jordan), spoke a dialect of Arabic but wrote in a modified Aramaic script.

In the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, the Nabataean script began to acquire the characteristics that would later become the basis for the Arabic alphabet. Initially, there were two versions of the script: the monumental Nabataean style for stone inscriptions and the more cursive style for writing on papyrus. It was this cursive style that gradually evolved into what we know today as the Arabic alphabet.

Although the earliest full Arabic inscriptions date from after the rise of Islam, the foundations of Arabic writing were laid much earlier. Some scholars trace its formation back to the 3rd century CE.

Classical Arabic

With the advent of Islam in the 7th century, a new chapter in the history of the Arabic language begins. This period is characterized by the standardization and systematization of the language, which led to the formation of Classical Arabic.

The Quran and the Standardization of the Arabic Language

The key event in the development of the Arabic language was the appearance of the Koran. The linguistic model of the Koran immediately acquired a high status among all Arabic dialects. The language of the Koran, also known as Classical Arabic, became the standard of purity and eloquence.

With the spread of Islam, there was a need to standardize and preserve the language of the Quran. Muslims who studied the sacred text initiated the process of linguistic codification. Scholars and philologists such as Abu al-Aswad al-Duali, Sibawayhi, and Ibn Duraid developed rules of grammar and vocabulary, relying primarily on the language of the Quran as a “clear Arabic book,” considered a model of purity of speech due to its divine origin.

Classical Arabic became not only the language of religious texts, but also the main means of written communication during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods (7th-9th centuries). Many Muslims still study classical Arabic specifically for reading the Quran in its original language.

The first grammar schools

The formal codification of Arabic grammar began shortly after the Muslim conquests. The question of who was the first Arabic grammarian remains controversial: some sources name Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali, who introduced diacritics and vowel markings in the mid-7th century, while others credit the pioneer to Ibn Abi Ishaq, who died in 735 – 736.

By the end of the 8th century, two main grammatical schools had emerged: Basrian and Kufi. The Basrian school’s representatives, Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, who created the first Arabic dictionary and work on Arabic prosody, and his student Sibawayhi, the author of the first book on the theory of Arabic grammar, laid the fundamental foundations for the study of Arabic. The Kufi school, founded by Al-Ruasi, developed alternative grammatical concepts, although many of its works have been lost.

The rivalry between these schools contributed to the comprehensive development of Arabic linguistic science. Both schools used the Quran as the main source for establishing the rules of Arabic grammar, which helped to secure its status as the standard of linguistic norm.

Development of Arabic script

The written form of Classical Arabic underwent significant changes in the early Islamic era. The original Arabic script had no dots to distinguish similar letters and no diacritics to indicate vowels. This made reading difficult, especially for non-Arabs who converted to Islam.

Abu al-Aswad al-Duali and al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi developed a system of dots and other diacritical marks (tashkil) that helped to pronounce words correctly. These innovations had a dual purpose: to preserve the exact form and pronunciation of the Quran and to protect the Arabic language from distortion.

During the early stages of writing, numerous reforms were carried out to improve the alphabet structure and vocalization system. Gradually, Arabic writing evolved from a simple writing system into an exquisite calligraphic art, closely linked to religious and cultural tradition. Calligraphy became a disciplined profession, where art was intertwined with science and spirituality.

Islamic conquests and the spread of Arabic

The Arabic language spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula thanks to the Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries, which led to its spread across vast areas of the Middle East, North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.

Arabization of new territories

The Arabic language spread across North Africa during the conquests of the Rashidun and Umayyads, when some 150,000 Arabs settled in the Maghreb. Arab military forces established settlements in the conquered territories, which led to the formation of new dialects of Arabic, such as Moroccan. Arabization was particularly intense in the cities, where Arabs and Berbers lived together, although the process was slower in rural areas.

In 637, Muslims conquered Persia and Jerusalem, and in 641, Alexandria (Egypt). By 711, Muslim Arabs had conquered Spain, and in 717-718 they even attempted to capture Constantinople and advanced into Western Europe as far as France.

Interestingly, the complete Arabization of many regions did not occur immediately after the Muslim conquests. For example, in Egypt, the period of Coptic-Arabic bilingualism in Lower Egypt lasted for more than three centuries, and in the south of the country it lasted even longer. Local chroniclers mention the continued use of Coptic as a spoken language until the 17th century among peasant women in Upper Egypt.

The Golden Age of Islamic Civilization

The rise of the Abbasids in 750 marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the Arab world and language. Baghdad became the center of the Muslim empire and the beginning of the Golden Age of Islamic civilization, which lasted until the Mongol invasion in 1258.

During this period, Arabic became the international language of science, philosophy, medicine, and literature. Under the patronage of the Abbasid caliphs, Muslim scholars built the first astronomical observatory, translated ancient Greek texts into Arabic, perfected and disseminated the Arabic alphabet and numerals, developed the astrolabe for navigation, created a vast body of Arabic literature and historical works, and made progress in agriculture, medicine, and technology.

An important event was the founding of a medical school in Baghdad in 765. The Arabs also established regular trade routes across North Africa and the Sahara to the West African kingdoms of Mali and Ghana. The Arab trade network facilitated the exchange of ideas and technologies between different cultures.

Formation of new dialects

With the expansion of the Islamic world and the settlement of Arabs in new territories, the process of formation of regional dialects of Arabic began. This process intensified in the 11th century, when the Bedouin tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym migrated to North Africa.

Maghreb Arabic, for example, was shaped by two linguistic traditions: urban Arabic dating back to the initial Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries (Pre-Hilal Arabic), and Bedouin Arabic dialects brought by nomadic tribes in the 11th and 12th centuries (Hilal Arabic). Sources estimate that about a million Arabs migrated to the Maghreb in the 11th century, which radically changed the demographic and linguistic situation in the region.

Similar processes took place in other parts of the Arab world, leading to the emergence of distinctive regional features in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. These dialects became increasingly distant from each other over time, although Classical Arabic continued to function as a single literary language.

Revival and modernization of the Arabic language

After a period of relative cultural decline following the Mongol invasion and the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Arabic language entered a new phase of its development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Nahda - Arab Revival

The term "Nahda" (literally "awakening") refers to a period of cultural and intellectual revival in the Arab world from the early 19th to the early 20th century. This period was characterized by the modernization of language, literature, and social thought under the influence of contacts with Western civilization.

The Nahda introduced innovative ways of reading and writing, new social practices of knowledge transmission, transnational connections, and modern political ideas. Arab models of nationalism and secularism, as well as concepts of Islamic revival, emerged during this period.

The key aspects of this movement were linguistic reforms, the development of translation activities, the emergence of new literary genres (including the novel), the creation of periodicals and a modern publishing industry, the formation of professional associations and intellectual salons, and the reform of the education system.

The influence of Western contacts and technology

The beginning of the modern period in the history of Arabic is considered to be Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798-1801), when contacts between the Western world and Arabic culture increased significantly. Napoleon brought the printing press to Egypt in 1798, which, although it disappeared after the French withdrawal in 1801, was reintroduced by Muhammad Ali Pasha a few years later in Bulaq (a suburb of Cairo).

The first Arabic-language printed newspaper, the bilingual Turkish-Arabic al-Waqa’i al-Misriyya, was founded in 1828 and had a significant influence on the formation of modern standard Arabic. It was followed by other publications such as al-Ahram (1875) and al-Muqattam (1889).

Western-Arab contacts and technological developments, especially in the field of printing and publishing, indirectly contributed to the revival of Arabic literature. An important factor was also the establishment of schools teaching exclusively in Arabic, in opposition to the Turkification of the Arab territories under Ottoman rule.

Arabic Language Academies

In the context of cultural revival and growing national consciousness, there was a need for institutional protection and development of the Arabic language. This issue became especially acute during the British occupation of Egypt, which began in 1882, when English was actively imposed in the education system and some voices advocated the use of colloquial Arabic instead of literary Arabic.

The first attempt to establish a language academy was made under Khedive Abbas Helmi II in 1892. On May 18, 1892, leading scholars, literary men and intellectuals gathered in the palace of Tawfiq al-Bakri to discuss the initiative. Among the participants were Sheikh al-Shanqiti, Sheikh Muhammad Abduh and other prominent figures. The first Academy of the Arabic Language was founded under the chairmanship of Muhammad Tawfiq al-Bakri.

This academy held only seven sessions, but managed to introduce some new terms that are still used today: shurti (policeman), bahu (lobby), mutaf (coat), and kufas (gloves). A full-fledged academy was only established in 1932 by royal decree. It was charged with preserving the integrity of the Arabic language, ensuring its relevance to science, art, and modern civilization, compiling a historical linguistic dictionary, studying modern Arabic dialects, and publishing scientific research.

The Academy was inaugurated on January 30, 1934 as the "Royal Academy of the Arabic Language". After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, it was renamed the "Academy of the Arabic Language".

Modern Standard Arabic

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) or Modern Written Arabic (MWA) is a form of standardized literary Arabic that developed in the Arab world in the late 19th century and today functions as the official language of all Arab countries.

Structure and features

Modern Standard Arabic is very close to Classical Arabic in terms of grammar, although there are some differences in vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, and stylistic norms. Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic have essentially the same grammatical structure, which ensures continuity between sacred texts and modern communication.

The grammar of Arabic is similar in many ways to that of other Semitic languages. Arabic has a complex morphology based on a system of triconsonant roots from which words are formed by using various vowel patterns and affixes.

An important feature of the Arabic language is its diglossia – the coexistence of two forms of the language: the “high” literary variant (Modern Standard Arabic) and the “low” colloquial variant (local dialects). This situation creates a certain tension in Arabic-speaking societies, especially in the sphere of education and the media.

Functions in the modern Arab world

Modern Standard Arabic serves as the official language used in government, legislation, and the judiciary of Arab countries. It is also the language of education, formal communication, much of the printed media, and religious discourse.

Although the spoken dialects dominate everyday communication, MSA remains a symbol of Arab unity and an important link between different parts of the Arab world. It also serves as a means of communication between speakers of different Arabic dialects who may have difficulty understanding each other.

In some Arab countries, such as Algeria, Maghrebi Arabic was once taught as a separate subject during the French colonization, and there were even textbooks in the dialect, but official authorities do not currently support this practice, preferring Standard Arabic.

Diglossia and language policy

The Arab world represents one of the most complex diglossia situations in the world. Diglossia in the Arabic context means the coexistence of two varieties of a language: a high variety (MSA or Classical Arabic), used in formal situations, and a low variety (colloquial dialects), used in everyday communication.

There are different views on the origins of Arabic diglossia. The traditional Arab view is that diglossia developed in the first Islamic century as a result of the Arab conquests, when non-Arabs began to speak Arabic. A more common view today is that diglossia is not a pre-Islamic phenomenon, but arose gradually as a result of linguistic contact between Arabic and other languages ​​in the conquered territories.

Language policy in Arab countries has generally focused on supporting and disseminating Modern Standard Arabic, although in recent years there has been growing recognition of the importance of dialects, particularly in areas such as popular culture, social media and informal education.

The main dialect groups of the Arabic language

Arabic dialects form a continuous continuum extending from Morocco to Iraq and from Syria to Yemen. Despite significant differences between distant dialects, there is a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility between geographically adjacent varieties.

Egyptian Arabic

Egyptian Arabic is one of the most widely spoken and understood Arabic dialects, thanks to the influence of the Egyptian film industry and media. Its history spans over a thousand years, beginning with the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century.

Arabic began to penetrate Egypt before Islam through the Eastern Desert and Sinai. Some Egyptian Arabic words derive from ancient Egyptian roots. After the Muslim conquest, the Nile Valley Egyptians gradually adopted Arabic as a written language, although they continued to speak Coptic or Koine Greek for several centuries.

Egyptian Arabic began to take shape in Fustat, Egypt’s first Islamic capital, now part of Cairo. One of the earliest linguistic accounts of Cairo Arabic, Yusuf al-Maghribi’s 16th-century document The Removal of a Burden from the Language of the People of Cairo, shows that despite its many deviations from Classical Arabic, the Cairo dialect retained a strong connection with it.

Egyptian Arabic has regional variations. The dialect of Alexandria (West Delta) differs from that of Cairo (South Delta) in such features as the use of the word "falafel" instead of "ta’amiyya" and a special pronunciation of the word "gineh" (Egyptian pound). Alexandrian speech is also characterized by the use of the prefix "ne-" for the first person singular and plural in the present and future tenses.

The dialect of Port Said (Eastern Delta) is more guttural than other regions. Rural dialects of Northern Egypt have their own phonetic and grammatical peculiarities, including the replacement of urban pronunciations of /g/ and /q/ with [ʒ] and [g] respectively in some areas.

Levantine Arabic

Levantine (Sham) Arabic is a dialect group spoken in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine. This dialect has deep historical roots and connects more than 54 million speakers in the region.

The Levantine dialect has evolved over the centuries under the influence of various cultures: Greek civilization, Roman conquests, Persian contacts and the Ottoman presence. Within the Levantine group, there are subdialects such as Damascene, Palestinian and Lebanese Arabic, each with its own distinctive features.

The cultural significance of Sham Arabic goes far beyond being a means of communication. It is deeply ingrained in the region’s music, literature, and media. Musical icons like Fairuz have immortalized Levantine Arabic in their melodies, and writers like Ghassan Kanafani have captured the dialect’s emotional depth in their writing.

Levantine Arabic is grammatically more flexible and simple than Standard Arabic. It has flexible word order (both VSO and SVO structures), simplified verb conjugations, two grammatical genders (masculine and feminine), and special pronunciation rules for the definite articles. Most feminine nouns end in ta-marbuta (ـة), and the dual is formed by adding the suffix -ēn (ين-).

Maghreb dialects

Maghreb Arabic comprises dialects from North Africa – Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. This dialect group has two historical lines: Pre-Hilal Arabic, originating from urban Arabs who arrived in the Maghreb during the Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries, and Hilal Arabic, brought by the Bedouin tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th-12th centuries.

The Maghrebi dialects form a continuum, with a high degree of mutual intelligibility between geographically close varieties (for example, between the dialects of eastern Morocco and western Algeria, or eastern Algeria and northern Tunisia), but with marked difficulties in comprehension between more distant forms, such as Moroccan and Tunisian Darija.

One of the distinctive features of Maghrebi Arabic is the use of the prefix n- as a marker of the first person singular of verbs, which distinguishes it from Levantine dialects and Modern Standard Arabic. The vocabulary of Maghrebi Arabic is predominantly Semitic and Arabic, but includes a significant number of Berber borrowings (from 2-3% in Libyan to 10-15% in Moroccan Arabic), as well as traces of a Punic substrate.

Maghrebi Arabic continues to evolve, incorporating new French and English words, especially in technical areas, or replacing old French and Italian/Spanish loanwords with words from Modern Standard Arabic in certain circles.

Mesopotamian Arabic

Mesopotamian (Iraqi) Arabic is spoken in Iraq, as well as parts of Syria, southeastern Turkey, Iran, Kuwait, and the Iraqi diaspora. Since Aramaic was the lingua franca of Mesopotamia from the early 1st millennium BCE to the late 1st millennium CE, Mesopotamian Arabic retains an Aramaic substratum. Some of its varieties, such as Ghelet and Judeo-Iraqi, retain features of Babylonian Aramaic.

Mesopotamian Arabic has two main varieties: Gelet and Celtic, whose names derive from the form of the word "I said" in each dialect. Gelet Arabic is a Bedouin variety spoken by Muslims (both sedentary and nomadic) in central and southern Iraq and by nomads in the rest of the country. Celtic Arabic is an urban dialect spoken by non-Muslims in central and southern Iraq (including Baghdad) and by sedentary populations (both Muslim and non-Muslim) in the rest of the country.

Non-Muslim groups include Christians, Yazidis, and Jews (before the expulsion of most Iraqi Jews in the 1940s and 1950s). Geographically, the Gelet-Keltu division roughly corresponds to Upper and Lower Mesopotamia, with an isogloss between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Arabian dialects

The Arabian dialects, which include Saudi, Emirati, Qatari, Bahraini, Kuwaiti, Omani, and Yemeni varieties, developed relatively close to the center of Arabic’s origins. They retain some archaic features, although they show significant innovations in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

As in other regions of the Arab world, Arabian dialects vary considerably. For example, dialects of northern Arabia are closer to Mesopotamian and Levantine, while southern Arabian varieties retain some features of Old South Arabian languages. Bedouin dialects are usually more conservative, preserving archaic features, while urban ones demonstrate more innovation and borrowings from other languages.

An important characteristic of the Arabian dialects is their status as the most prestigious among the Arabic dialects, due to their connection with Islam and early Arab culture. This prestige is particularly noticeable in religious contexts, where the Saudi variety is often perceived as more “pure” or “correct” due to its proximity to the holy sites of Islam – Mecca and Medina.

Arabic language in the modern world

Sociolinguistic status and language policy

Arabic has a special status in the modern world as one of the six official languages ​​of the United Nations and the official language of 22 countries with a total population of about 400 million people. It also serves as the religious language of more than 1.8 billion Muslims worldwide.

In Arab countries, language policy is generally aimed at supporting and disseminating Modern Standard Arabic as a symbol of national and cultural unity. However, the practical implementation of this policy faces the problem of diglossia and the growing influence of Western languages, especially English and French.

In the education system of Arab countries, there is a gap between the language of instruction (MSA) and the everyday language of students (local dialects), which creates additional difficulties in the educational process. Some educators and linguists advocate a more flexible approach that takes into account the real language situation.

Attitudes towards dialects vary across Arab countries. In some regions, particularly in the Maghreb, dialects are sometimes seen as a threat to the “purity” of the Arabic language and national identity. In other places, such as Lebanon, there is a more tolerant attitude towards dialects and their use in various fields, including literature and media.

Problems and challenges of our time

The Arabic language faces a number of challenges in the modern world. One of the main ones is the growing influence of English and other Western languages, especially in the fields of science, technology, business and higher education. In many Arab countries, English or French are used in prestigious universities and international companies, which creates the problem of the functional limitations of the Arabic language.

Another problem is diglossia, or the gap between different varieties of Arabic. Mutual intelligibility between speakers of different dialects can be low, especially between geographically distant regions, such as between Moroccan and Iraqi Arabic. This makes pan-Arabic communication difficult and contributes to the rise of English as a neutral lingua franca even among Arabs.

The technical difficulties of adapting Arabic to modern digital technology also pose a major challenge. Although there have been significant advances in Arabic keyboards, speech recognition software, and machine translation in recent years, Arabic still faces challenges in the digital environment, partly due to the complexity of its script and morphology.

Arabic Language and National Identity

The Arabic language plays a central role in shaping the national and cultural identity of the Arab peoples. It is considered not only a means of communication, but also a custodian of a rich cultural heritage, a link to the golden age of Islamic civilization, and a symbol of the unity of the Arab nation.

Of particular importance is the connection between Arabic and Islam. As the language of the Koran, Arabic acquires a sacred status for Muslims, which contributes to its preservation and dissemination even in non-Arab Muslim countries. Millions of non-Muslims study Arabic precisely to read the Koran in its original language.

Regional dialects also play an important role in local identity. They are often associated with popular culture, traditions, and everyday life, in contrast to the more formal and abstract Modern Standard Arabic. This duality – Standard Arabic as a symbol of pan-Arab unity and local dialects as expressions of local identity – characterizes the complex sociolinguistic situation in the Arab world.

Development Prospects

Despite the challenges, Arabic has demonstrated considerable vitality and adaptability to changing conditions. Arabic language academies in various Arab countries are actively working to modernize the language, creating new terminology for scientific and technical fields and standardizing modern Arabic.

The digital revolution is opening up new opportunities for the Arabic language. The number of online resources, social media, blogs, and websites in Arabic is growing. Natural language processing technologies adapted for Arabic are developing, facilitating its integration into the modern digital environment.

Educational reforms in Arab countries are aimed at increasing the effectiveness of teaching Arabic, taking into account the real language situation. Some teachers are experimenting with new methods that include elements of dialects in the initial stages of teaching, with a gradual transition to standard Arabic.

The cultural industries, especially cinema, television and music, contribute to the dissemination and popularization of Arabic both within and outside the Arab world. Egyptian films, Lebanese music and pan-Arab television channels create a common cultural space where different varieties of Arabic interact and enrich each other.

The history of the Arabic language is a complex and multifaceted picture of evolution from the pre-Islamic dialects of the Arabian Peninsula to the modern linguistic situation with its many regional variants and pervasive diglossia. At every stage of this journey, Arabic has demonstrated a remarkable ability to combine continuity with change, while preserving its basic structure and cultural significance.

The Quran played a key role in the standardization and dissemination of Arabic, becoming a linguistic standard and catalyst for Arab expansion from the moment of its inception. The Islamic conquests led to the spread of Arabic far beyond its original area, which, combined with subsequent migrations of Arab tribes, led to the formation of various dialect groups.

The Golden Age of Islamic civilization transformed Arabic into an international language of science and culture, while the Nahda period marked its revival and adaptation to the demands of modernity. Today, Arabic continues to play an important role as a link between the Arab world, the sacred language of Islam, and the bearer of a rich cultural tradition.

Although the Arabic language faces serious challenges in the era of globalization and digitalization, its inherent strength and adaptability, as well as the institutional support of Arab states and language academies, provide grounds for optimism about its future. The history of the Arabic language continues to be written, reflecting a changing world and maintaining a living connection with its centuries-old heritage.