"Faces of the Era:
From the Origins to the Mongol Invasion" by Vasily Klyuchevsky, summary

This historical collection, compiled in 2015, combines the works of classic Russian historiographers Vasily Klyuchevsky and Nikolai Kostomarov with encyclopedic references and commentary by Olga Fedorova. The authors combine rigorous academic analysis with biographical essays, presenting the rulers of Ancient Rus’ as real people with their own weaknesses, passions, and state ambitions.

The book was published as part of Boris Akunin’s "History of the Russian State" project as a documentary and historical supplement. This publication complements the events of the first volume of the series, which covers the development of Slavic statehood up to the arrival of the Golden Horde.

The Philosophy of Mercy and the Birth of Chronicle Writing

The collection begins with Vasily Klyuchevsky’s reflections on the nature of ancient Russian charity. Love for one’s neighbor was then understood as personal almsgiving, necessary primarily for the giver for the sake of spiritual salvation. A striking example is Juliana Lazarevskaya, who saved many peasants from death during the crop failures of the early 17th century with surrogate bread made from tree bark. Another example of philanthropy is Fyodor Rtishchev, who organized temporary hospitals during the Polish War and ransomed prisoners with his own funds.

In exploring the origins of historiography, Klyuchevsky distinguishes between the work of the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor and that of Abbot Sylvester. Nestor created the original chronicle, while Sylvester edited the collection "The Tale of Bygone Years." The chronicler’s worldview is deeply theological: historical disasters, invasions of the steppe people, and natural omens are perceived as divine punishment for sins and a pedagogical instrument of Providence.

Formation of the state and the first Rurikovichs

The unification of the Slavic tribes began with the summoning of Rurik. Soon, the Varangian prince Oleg the Prophet descended along the trade waterway to the Dnieper, slyly assassinated the Kyivan rulers Askold and Dir, and made Kyiv the capital. Oleg imposed tribute on the surrounding Slavic tribes, waged a successful war against Byzantium, nailed his shield to the gates of Constantinople, and concluded favorable treaties in 907 and 911.

His successor, Igor, continued the policy of holding on to his subordinate lands, but was killed during a tax collection operation by the rebellious Drevlians. His widow, Princess Olga, cruelly avenged her husband’s death by burning the Drevlian capital of Iskorosten with burning tow tied to birds. Realizing the destructiveness of arbitrary levies, Olga instituted fixed tribute standards — the uros and pogosts. She was also the first member of the ruling family to convert to Christianity in Constantinople.

Olga’s son, Svyatoslav, grows up to be a staunch pagan and a fierce warrior. He crushes Khazaria, captures Belaya Vezha and Itil, and then shifts his military activity to the Danube. Having established himself in Bulgaria, Svyatoslav comes into conflict with the Byzantine Emperor John Tzimiskes. After bloody battles, the Russian prince is forced to make peace. On his return to Kyiv, Svyatoslav is ambushed at the Dnieper rapids and killed by the Pechenegs. Khan Kurya orders that a cup be made from his skull.

Baptism of Rus’

Svyatoslav’s death sparks civil strife: Yaropolk eliminates his brother Oleg and then falls victim to his younger brother Vladimir. Having become sole ruler, Vladimir initially displays a fervent paganism, establishing a pantheon of idols in Kyiv, headed by Perun. However, political necessity pushes him to seek a monotheistic religion.

Vladimir helps Byzantium suppress an internal rebellion, demanding the hand of Princess Anna in exchange. Refusing, the prince seizes the Greek city of Korsun. The emperors agree to the marriage on the condition that the Russian ruler be baptized. Returning to Kyiv in 988, the prince overthrows the idols and baptizes the people en masse in the waters of the Dnieper. The new faith brings writing, stone architecture, and humane laws. Vladimir builds the Church of the Tithes and establishes defensive lines against the Pechenegs on the Sula and Stugna, forever remembered as Equal to the Apostles.

The era of Yaroslav the Wise

Vladimir’s death brings a new tragedy: Svyatopolk the Accursed kills his brothers Boris, Gleb, and Svyatoslav. Relying on the Novgorod militia, his other brother, Yaroslav, defeats Svyatopolk’s forces at the Alta River. After years of struggle, accompanied by clashes with the Polish King Bolesław the Brave and his brother Mstislav of Tmutarakan, Yaroslav becomes sole sovereign.

The prince earned the nickname "the Wise" for his large-scale state-building. He finally crushed the Pechenegs near Kiev in 1036 and erected the magnificent Saint Sophia Cathedral and the Golden Gate. The "Russkaya Pravda" (Russian Truth) code of laws was introduced, replacing blood feuds with monetary fines — virs. Yaroslav developed the practice of book writing, and Metropolitan Hilarion, the first head of the Church of Russian origin, wrote the remarkable treatise "A Sermon on Law and Grace," substantiating the spiritual equality of Rus’ with other countries.

The Appanage Period and Vladimir Monomakh

The division of lands among Yaroslav’s sons triggered the disintegration of the unified state. Dissension escalated, exacerbated by the raids of a new steppe threat — the Polovtsians. Kyiv passed from one prince to another. In 1097, at the instigation of Vladimir Monomakh, the ruler of Pereyaslav, a congress was convened in Lyubech. The princes agreed to each hold their own patrimony, but peace was immediately shattered by the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavich, Prince of Terebovl, at the instigation of David Igorevich of Volyn.

Vladimir Monomakh forced the princes to punish the criminal. He organized offensive campaigns against the Polovtsians, winning crushing victories at the Suten tract and the Salnytsia River. In 1113, after a Kyivan uprising against moneylenders, the city’s citizens called upon Monomakh to ascend to the Kyivan throne. The prince limited interest on debts, protected the zakups from the arbitrary rule of their owners, and bequeathed to his children the famous "Instruction," preaching justice, military discipline, and mercy. His eldest son, Mstislav the Great, briefly maintained the unity of the state, after which fragmentation became irreversible.

North-Eastern Rus’ and the Novgorod Republic

The political center shifted to the northeast, to the Rostov-Suzdal land. Monomakh’s youngest son, Yuri Dolgoruky, actively built new fortresses and in 1147 invited an ally to Moscow. His son, Andrei Bogolyubsky, rejected the throne of Kyiv, preferring to develop Vladimir on the Klyazma. In 1169, Andrei’s regiments brutally sacked Kyiv, while the prince himself remained in the north. Andrei’s authoritarian style of rule, the expulsion of his father’s retinue, and reliance on new servants led to the Kuchkovich conspiracy and the assassination of Bogolyubsky. His brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest, continued his legacy, achieving the greatest prosperity for the Vladimir principality.

Meanwhile, Novgorod took a different path. Having expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich in 1136, the Novgorodians established a boyar republic. Supreme power rested with the people’s assembly, which elected the posadnik (mayor) and tysyatsky (commander). Princes were called upon exclusively as mercenary commanders.

Mstislav the Bold and Daniil Galitsky

The Toropets prince Mstislav the Bold became a shining example of the era’s chivalrous spirit. He successfully defended Novgorod’s liberties against the Vladimir rulers, defeating the regiments of Yuri and Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in the Battle of Lipitskaya in 1216. Mstislav later retreated to Galich, where he persistently fought the Hungarians, Poles, and rebellious boyars. In 1224, he led the Russian regiments in their first clash with the Tatars on the Kalka River, but suffered a disastrous defeat due to a lack of coordination.

Mstislav’s son-in-law, Daniil Romanovich Galitsky, inherited the military glory of southwestern Rus’. Having lost his father in infancy, Daniil spent many years in exile, fighting to reclaim his father’s legacy. With incredible tenacity, he suppressed the boyar opposition, routed the crusaders at Dorogichin, and defeated the Hungarian forces.

The terrifying invasion of Batu Khan’s hordes reduces Ryazan, Vladimir, and Kyiv to ashes. Daniil is forced to go to the Horde and acquiesce to the Khan in order to preserve his land. Obsessed with the idea of liberation, he seeks an alliance with Catholic Europe and agrees to be crowned by the Pope, but never receives the promised crusade against the Mongols. Daniil successfully pacifies the Lithuanians and Yotvingians and builds the new city of Kholm, but under pressure from the Tatar temnik Burundai, he is forced to destroy the fortifications of his fortresses with his own hands. The proud ruler dies in 1264, never having thrown off the Horde’s yoke, forever cementing his image as a fearless defender of the fatherland.