Plutarch’s "Isis and Osiris," Summary

The treatise "On Isis and Osiris" was written by the ancient Greek writer and philosopher Plutarch of Chaeronea in the early second century CE, approximately between 100 and 120 CE. This work is part of the extensive "Moralia" cycle and represents a unique attempt by the ancient thinker to understand Egyptian mythology through the prism of Platonic philosophy. The book’s main distinction is that it is the only coherent and complete exposition of the myth of Osiris to have come down to us from antiquity, serving as an invaluable source for understanding the religious syncretism of that era.

The work is of fundamental importance for Egyptology and the history of religion, remaining the primary source of information on the cult of Isis for centuries until the decipherment of hieroglyphs. The text is dedicated to Clea, a priestess who held a high position in the Delphic cult, and is written in the form of a philosophical instruction.

The nature of knowledge and priestly purity

Plutarch begins his narrative with an address to Clea, asserting that the pursuit of truth, especially in matters of the divine, is the highest piety, surpassing any ritual acts. He etymologically links the name of the goddess Isis with the Greek word for "to know," presenting her as the embodiment of wisdom, opposing Typhon — the force of ignorance and chaos.

The author examines the lifestyle of the Egyptian priests in detail, explaining their strict prohibitions not by superstition, but by rational and symbolic reasons. Linen clothing and shaving were necessary to maintain physical purity, as "it is not permissible for the pure to touch the impure," and wool and hair are waste products of the body. Dietary restrictions, such as abstaining from pork, fish, and wine, were explained by concern for the body, which should not burden the soul. Wine, according to ancient belief, was considered the blood of those who once rebelled against the gods, and fish was associated with the sea — an alien and hostile element to the Nile.

The Myth of Osiris

The central part of the work is occupied by a detailed exposition of the myth, which Plutarch provides, stripping it of the more improbable details. The story begins with the goddess Rhea (Nu) secretly having sex with Cronus (Geb). Helios (Ra), upon learning of this, placed a curse on her so that she could not give birth on any day of the year. Hermes (Thoth), having won a seventeenth part of each day at checkers against the Moon, made up five extra days. On these days, the gods were born: Osiris, Arueris (Horus the Elder), Typhon (Seth), Isis, and Nephthys. Typhon was born by brutally piercing his mother’s side.

Osiris, having ascended to the throne of Egypt, led the people out of their bestial state, established laws, and taught them to worship the gods. Typhon, envious of his brother, organized a conspiracy involving seventy-two accomplices and the Ethiopian queen Aso. Having secretly measured Osiris’s body, Typhon fashioned a magnificent sarcophagus. At a banquet, he promised to give this chest to whoever found the right fit. When Osiris lay within, the conspirators slammed the lid shut, filled it with lead, and threw it into the Nile. The body washed out to sea through the mouth of Tanit.

Upon learning of the tragedy, Isis donned mourning and set out to find it. The sarcophagus washed ashore on Byblos, where a heather bush miraculously grew and concealed the coffin within its trunk. The local king, Malcander, delighted with the tree and ordered it to be carved into a palace column. Isis arrived in Byblos and, unrecognized, became the king’s son’s nurse. Wishing to grant the child immortality, she burned his mortal coil at night, while she, in the guise of a swallow, flew around the column containing her husband’s body. One day, the queen saw the child in the fire and screamed, depriving her son of immortality. Isis revealed herself, demanded the column, and removed the sarcophagus from within.

Returning to Egypt, the goddess hid the body in a secluded place, but Typhon, hunting by moonlight, stumbled upon it. He tore Osiris’s body into fourteen pieces and scattered them. Isis again set out on her travels, recovering body parts and constructing a tomb at each site. Only the phallus was missing, as it had been eaten by fish (lepidotus, phagros, and oxyrhynchus), so Isis fashioned an image of it, which the Egyptians began to worship.

War of the Gods and the Birth of Horus

Osiris returned from the underworld to prepare his son Horus for battle with Typhon. In a famous dialogue, when his father asked him which animal was most useful in war, Horus chose a horse (for pursuing the enemy) over a lion, delighting Osiris. The battle lasted for many days, and Horus emerged victorious. Typhon was captured and handed over to Isis, but she did not execute him, instead releasing him. Horus, enraged, tore his mother’s crown from her head, and Hermes replaced it with a helmet shaped like a cow’s head. Typhon attempted to accuse Horus of illegitimacy, but the gods recognized the legitimacy of their heir.

Plutarch notes that there are other episodes, such as Horus cutting off Isis’s head or Typhon gouging out Horus’s eye, which should be taken allegorically.

Philosophical interpretation of myth

The author consistently rejects euhemerism — the idea that the gods were simply ancient kings. He also criticizes the literal interpretation of myths, calling it impious. Plutarch proposes the theory of demons (in the Greek sense, daimons), according to which Isis and Osiris were powerful spirits elevated to the rank of gods for their virtue.

A physical allegory follows. Osiris personifies the moist, fertile principle, the Nile and its life-giving juices. Typhon represents fiery dryness, the sea, and everything hostile to moisture. Isis is the earth, which is fertilized by the Nile (Osiris), giving birth to Horus (the fruits of the earth and order). Isis’s capture of Typhon signifies that destructive force is not completely destroyed, but restrained to maintain balance in the world.

Astronomical interpretation associates Osiris with the Moon, and Typhon with the Sun (as a desiccating force) or with the Earth’s shadow during an eclipse. Osiris’s death on the 17th day of the month corresponds to the waning of the moon. The fourteen parts of the body represent the fourteen days of the moon’s waning before the new moon.

Dualism and symbolism

Plutarch, drawing on Platonism, develops the idea of the duality of the universe. The world is not governed by Reason alone, but is a battlefield between two principles: good (Osiris) and evil (Typhon). Harmony (Horus) is born from their interaction.

A geometric analogy is given to a right triangle, where the vertical leg (3) symbolizes the masculine principle (Osiris), the base (4) the feminine (Isis), and the hypotenuse (5) generation (Horus). The name of Isis is associated with movement and knowledge, and that of Osiris with holiness and sacredness.

Animals and Incense

In the final chapters, Plutarch justifies Egyptian zoolatry (animal worship). Animals are revered not in themselves, but as living mirrors of divine qualities. The ibis symbolizes purity, the dog symbolizes vigilance, and the scarab symbolizes the spontaneous generation of the sun (since scarabs were believed to have no females). Only excessive, superstitious worship is condemned.

The treatise concludes with a description of complex incense, in particular the "kufi" mixture, consisting of sixteen ingredients. These aromas, possessing healing and calming properties, were used by priests to purify the air and prepare the body for sacred sleep. Plutarch emphasizes that daytime rituals are associated with a solar, simple principle, while nighttime rituals are associated with a complex and mixed one: "It is therefore quite right that simple incense, derived from the sun, is burned during the day, while others, as something mixed and qualitatively heterogeneous, are burned at nightfall."