A summary of the Satires of Decimus Junius Juvenal

This celebrated work of Roman literature, composed in the first third of the second century AD (c. 100–127), is a collection of sixteen verses written in dactylic hexameter. The most significant feature of this work is its uncompromising, caustic tone ("indignation gives birth to verse"), with which the author denounces the vices of contemporary Roman society, engulfed in moral decay, corruption, and hypocrisy.

Book I: Hypocrisy, the danger of the capital and the humiliation of the poor

The author begins by explaining his reasons for turning to the genre of satire. He is weary of the endless declamations of talentless poets retelling mythological stories, while the real life of Rome abounds with far more outrageous stories. Juvenal declares that it is difficult not to write satire when a eunuch marries a woman on the city streets, when a former barber grows rich and challenges the patricians, and when informers thrive. The poet observes how crime becomes the shortest route to wealth: poisoners and swindlers ride in litters, looking down on the crowds.

The second satire criticizes hypocrites who feign morality in the spirit of the ancient philosophers but indulge in secret debauchery. The author mentions men who verbally extol virtue but in reality engage in orgies and even marry other men, observing wedding rites. The example of Gracchus, who gave a dowry for a trumpeter and signed a marriage contract, is cited.

The third satire is dedicated to the departure of Umbricius, an old friend of the author, from Rome. Umbricius stops at the Capena Gate and explains why it is impossible for an honest man to survive in the capital. Rome is overrun with foreigners, especially Greeks, who are willing to commit any baseness for profit. Poverty has become a source of ridicule: a person is judged not by his soul, but by the number of slaves he owns and the size of his purse. Life in the city is fraught with constant danger: dilapidated houses threaten to collapse, and nighttime fires destroy the meager possessions of the poor, like Codrus, who loses his bed and his only book. The rich, meanwhile, receive so many gifts during a fire that they become even wealthier. At night, passersby are threatened by robbers, drunken hooligans, and objects falling from windows.

The fourth satire transports the reader to the palace of Emperor Domitian. A fisherman catches a huge flounder of incredible size and, not daring to sell it, presents it to the emperor as a gift. Domitian convenes a State Council to decide how to prepare the fish, for which there is no suitable dish. The courtiers rushing to the palace are described in a sarcastic tone. Among them are the informer Catullus and the glutton Montanus. The advisers, trembling with fear before the tyrant, discuss the culinary matter with the utmost importance of state, while Domitian instills terror in them.

The fifth satire describes the humiliating situation of a parasitic client at a dinner party hosted by the wealthy patron Virro. The guest, Trebius, is served sour wine and moldy bread, impossible to chew, while the host enjoys fine wine and the softest pastries. Virro dines on lobster, rudd, and moray eel, while the guest is served a crayfish with half an egg and an eel caught in the sewage of the Tiber. The purpose of such a dinner is not to feed the poor man, but to make him suffer, watching the rich man’s gluttony, and to completely trample his dignity.

Book II: The Vices of Roman Matrons

The sixth satire is a lengthy invective against women. The author dissuades Postumus from marriage, claiming that chastity has long since abandoned the earth. Roman matrons, according to the poet, are mired in fornication. He describes Eppia, the senator’s wife, who fled to Egypt with a gladiator, abandoning her home and children. He recalls Messalina, the emperor’s wife, who left the palace at night to work in the lupanar under the name Licisca, giving herself to all comers.

Women are accused of extravagance, tyranny over their husbands, and cruelty to slaves. If a husband fails to satisfy their whims or provide money, they turn his life into hell. The author describes superstitious women who worship Eastern deities — Isis, Cybele — and listen to Jewish fortune tellers. Particular attention is given to poisoners who, like the mythical Medea or Clytemnestra, get rid of their stepsons and husbands with poison, but do so not out of jealousy, but for money.

Book III: The Fate of Intellectuals and the Significance of Origins

The seventh satire examines the plight of intellectuals. Poets are forced to seek patronage, but the rich merely praise them without paying. Historians and lawyers also eke out a miserable existence. Lawyers are forced to feign wealth to attract clients, spending their last resources on renting expensive clothes and chariots. Teachers of rhetoric and grammar are in an even worse position: students beat them, and parents refuse to pay, demanding that the tutor supervise their sons’ morals and memorize all the subtleties of literature.

The eighth satire is addressed to Ponticus and raises the question of true nobility. Juvenal argues that a long pedigree and portraits of ancestors are meaningless if the descendant leads a shameful life. He cites the example of Lateran, a consul who drives his own chariot and drinks in filthy taverns in the company of thieves and executioners. The poet contrasts vicious aristocrats (such as Catiline and Cethegus) with men of humble origins who saved Rome — Cicero and Marius.

The ninth satire is structured as a dialogue between the author and Nevol, a professional male lover. Nevol complains about his patron, Virro, who is stingy and ungrateful, despite Nevol performing the most intimate and humiliating services, even going so far as to bear children for Virro’s wife, saving him from infertility. Nevol laments that his "labor" does not provide him with a dignified old age.

Book IV: Vanity of Desires and Moderation

The tenth satire philosophically examines human desires. People pray to the gods for things that often lead to ruin. The lust for power destroyed Sejanus, whose statue was melted down for chamber pots, and his body was dragged through the streets on a hook. Eloquence led to the death of Cicero and Demosthenes. Military glory led Hannibal, conqueror of the Alps, to exile and death by poison in a ring. Longevity, prayed for by many, brings only infirmity, deformity, and grief from the loss of loved ones, as happened to Priam. The beauty of children threatens them with corruption and danger. The only thing worth praying for is "a healthy mind in a healthy body" ) mens sana in corpore sano ), a spirit unafraid of death and free from passions.

The eleventh satire is a dinner invitation addressed to his friend Persic. Juvenal contrasts the modesty of his table with the luxury of ruined gourmets. His dinner will feature no market delicacies, only simple fare from his own estate: kid goat, asparagus, eggs, and fruit. The guests will be entertained not by Spanish dancers, but by readings from Homer and Virgil. The poet urges his friend to take a break from his worries and enjoy simplicity.

The twelfth satire describes the sacrifice Juvenal performs in honor of the rescue of his friend Catullus, who was caught in a terrible storm at sea. Catullus was forced to throw his most prized possessions — purple fabrics and silverware — overboard to save the ship. The author emphasizes the selflessness of his joy, as Catullus has three children, and therefore Juvenal cannot be a fortune hunter, who usually "courts" only childless rich men.

Book V: Crime, Education, and Savagery

The thirteenth satire consoles Calvin, whose friend cheated him out of ten thousand sesterces. Juvenal argues that in our "Iron Age," honesty is rare, and Calvin’s loss is small compared to other crimes. Temple robbers, poisoners, and false witnesses are encountered at every turn. However, the criminal will not escape punishment: his conscience will torment him. Fear of divine retribution deprives the guilty man of sleep, causing him to see the wrath of Jupiter in every storm, and ultimately he will commit another crime and be caught.

The fourteenth satire is about education. Parents teach their children vices by example. A gambler’s son begins to play dice, a prostitute’s daughter writes love letters under her mother’s dictation. But worst of all is greed. A father teaches his son to profit by any means necessary, to cheat, and to skimp on feeding slaves. This passion for profit ultimately turns against the parents themselves: a son, thirsty for wealth, might buy poison for his father to speed up his inheritance.

The fifteenth satire tells of a monstrous case of cannibalism in Egypt. Residents of two neighboring cities, Omba and Tentyra, are feuding over religious differences (their worship of different animals). During a festival, a fight breaks out between them, escalating into a massacre. The Tentyra residents put their enemies to flight, but one of the fleeing men falls. The victors tear him apart and eat him raw, without waiting for the meat to cook. Juvenal is horrified that humans have fallen lower than beasts, for even tigers and bears live in peace with their own kind.

The sixteenth satire (unfinished) describes the advantages of military service. Soldiers enjoy a privileged position compared to civilians. If a soldier beats a citizen, the latter cannot complain to the praetor. Trials of soldiers take place only in camp, among other soldiers, making it impossible to achieve justice. Soldiers also have the right to dispose of their property during their father’s lifetime, which forces even their relatives to curry favor with them.