History of the Japanese language Automatic translate

The Japanese language is a unique language system with a rich history of development spanning several millennia. During this time, the language has undergone a significant evolutionary path, changing under the influence of internal processes and external contacts. The exact genetic classification of the Japanese language remains a subject of scientific debate among linguists.

Modern Japanese is the result of a long historical development, including many phonetic, grammatical and lexical changes. The main goal of this study is to trace the path of language development from its early forms to its modern state, to consider the key stages of its formation and the main linguistic features.

Origin of the Japanese language

The origin of the Japanese language is still a subject of active scientific debate. There are several main hypotheses among researchers regarding its linguistic affiliation. The most common theories are those of Altaic and Austronesian origin.

Supporters of the Altaic theory point to the structural similarities between Japanese and the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic-Manchu languages. These similarities are manifested in the agglutinative structure, the absence of grammatical gender, the use of postpositions instead of prepositions, and the relatively fixed word order in a sentence.

The Austronesian hypothesis is based on the presence in the Japanese language of a lexical layer that has parallels with the Austronesian languages ​​of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Some researchers suggest that modern Japanese was formed as a result of the layering of the Altaic linguistic substrate onto the Austronesian base.

There is also a Korean theory that Japanese is related to Korean. Indeed, there is a significant typological similarity in grammatical structure between these languages, although the basic vocabulary differs significantly.

Proto-Japanese language

Proto-Japanese is the reconstructed ancestral language from which modern Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages ​​are derived. According to historical and archaeological data, Proto-Japanese may have existed around the first millennium BC, when the Puyo tribes arrived on the Japanese islands.

The reconstruction of the Proto-Japanese language is based on a comparative study of modern Japanese dialects and Ryukyuan languages, as well as on an analysis of the most ancient written monuments. A special contribution to this work was made by the American Japanologist Samuel Martin in his work "The Japanese Language Through Time".

Proto-Japanese supposedly had an eight-vowel system, as opposed to the five vowels of modern Japanese. The consonant system was also richer than today’s. The syllabic structure allowed for closed syllables, which were later lost.

Early Formation of the Japanese Language

The process of the formation of the early Japanese language is closely connected with the ethnogenesis of the Japanese people. Archaeological data indicate that the Japanese islands were inhabited by different groups of peoples who brought with them different linguistic traditions.

The earliest evidence of the Japanese language is presented in Chinese historical chronicles of the 3rd century CE, where individual Japanese words, mainly names and toponyms, were written phonetically in Chinese characters. For example, the chronicle "Wei Zhi" contains the first records of Japanese words in Chinese characters used exclusively to convey sound.

Due to the lack of their own written language among the ancient Japanese, it is impossible to accurately reconstruct the phonetic and grammatical structure of the early Japanese language. However, historical and comparative linguistic studies allow us to draw certain conclusions about its characteristics.

Old Japanese language

Old Japanese (Jōko Nihongo) is the earliest documented form of the Japanese language. Chronologically, this period covers the time from approximately the 3rd to the 8th century AD. The most reliable information about Old Japanese comes from the Nara period (710–794).

The phonetic system of Old Japanese was different from modern Japanese phonetics. It had eight vowel sounds, including the distinction between the vowels [i] and [ɨ], [e] and [ə], [o] and [ɔ], which later merged. The consonant system was also richer and included phonemes that were later lost.

The grammatical structure of Old Japanese was agglutinative, that is, grammatical meanings were expressed by adding affixes to unchangeable roots, each of which had its own meaning. For example, the verb form "tabesaserareru" (can make someone eat) consisted of separate morphemes expressing specific grammatical meanings.

In ancient Japanese there was a developed system of conjugation of verbs and adjectives. Verbs were divided into four conjugations depending on the nature of the stem. Adjectives had two main groups - predicative and adjectival. The syntax was characterized by a strict word order SOV (subject-object-verb).

The first written monuments

The earliest surviving Japanese written records date back to the 8th century. The most important of these are the Kojiki (712), the Nihon Shoki (720), and the Manyoshu anthology (c. 759). These texts were written using Chinese characters adapted for writing Japanese.

Initially, the Japanese used Chinese characters in several ways: to write Chinese words and expressions, to write Japanese words with similar meanings, and to write Japanese words phonetically without taking into account the semantic meaning of the character. The latter method was called "man’yogana" and became the basis for the development of Japanese syllabic writing.

Studying these ancient texts presents considerable difficulties, since the writing system was not standardized and the same hieroglyph could be used in different ways. However, it is thanks to these written monuments that we have an idea of ​​the ancient Japanese language.

Old Japanese (Nara period)

Old Japanese dates back to the period when the capital of Japan was in Nara (710–794). This period is extremely important for the history of the Japanese language, since it was then that the first extensive written records appeared.

The linguistic features of Old Japanese included an eight-vowel phonetic system, rich morphology, and specific syntax. Old Japanese had grammatical forms that were later lost, such as special imperative forms and a more complex system of verb and adjective conjugation.

The texts were written using Man’yōgana, a writing system in which Chinese characters were used phonetically to represent Japanese syllables. The name of the system comes from the anthology Manyōshū (万葉集, "Collection of Myriad Leaves"), where this method of writing was widely used.

The Old Japanese period saw the first significant literary works in Japanese. In addition to the already mentioned Kojiki, Nihon Shoki and Manyoshu, the compilation of the provincial chronicles Fudoki (720) dates back to this time. These texts not only represent literary value, but also serve as the most important sources for studying the Old Japanese language.

Old Japanese was characterized by minimal influence of Chinese on vocabulary. Borrowings from Chinese were few and related mainly to administrative, religious and cultural spheres associated with Chinese influence.

Classical Japanese (Heian period)

With the transfer of the capital from Nara to Heian (modern Kyoto) in 794, a new stage in the development of the Japanese language began, which lasted until the 12th century. During this period, significant changes occurred in the phonetics, grammar and vocabulary of the language.

The phonetic system was simplified: eight vowels were reduced to five by merging similar sounds. Changes also occurred in the consonant system. In grammar, verb forms were further developed, new grammatical constructions emerged, and the system of expressing politeness was improved.

The most important achievement of this period was the creation and development of Japan’s own syllabic writing. Based on the simplification of Chinese characters used in man’yogana, two syllabic alphabets were formed: hiragana and katakana. Hiragana, which originated from the cursive writing of characters, was used by women and for writing fiction. Katakana, which is simplified fragments of characters, was used by men mainly for scientific and religious texts.

The Heian period was marked by the flourishing of Japanese literature written in the native language. Famous works of this time were written in hiragana. The language of these works became a model of classical Japanese.

During the Heian period, there was an increase in the number of Chinese borrowings in the Japanese language. They penetrated primarily into the sphere of administrative management, the Buddhist religion, philosophy and science. Many of these borrowings have survived in the Japanese language to this day.

During this same period, the formation of a mixed writing system (kanbun) began, combining hieroglyphs and syllabic writing, which became the basis of modern Japanese writing. Hieroglyphs were used to write significant words (nouns, verb stems, and adjectives), and hiragana was used to write grammatical indicators.

Medieval Japanese

The medieval period in the history of the Japanese language spans approximately five centuries – from the 12th to the 16th century. This period is often divided into early (12th – 14th centuries) and late (14th – 16th centuries) stages.

The phonology of medieval Japanese underwent significant changes. The long vowel system underwent transformations: the combinations /au/ contracted to [ɔː], and /ou/ and /eu/ to [oː] and [joː], respectively. In the consonant system, certain sounds before front vowels became palatalized.

The grammatical system of the medieval Japanese language is characterized by further development and complication of politeness forms, reflecting the strict social hierarchy of feudal society. Some archaic grammatical forms were simplified, and new constructions appeared.

There was a significant increase in the number of Chinese borrowings in the vocabulary, which was associated with the active reception of Chinese culture, especially among the samurai and Buddhist clergy. In addition, the process of forming stable phrases and phraseological units began in the medieval Japanese language.

The medieval period was a time of transition in Japan from an aristocratic state to a feudal samurai society. The political center moved to the shogunate, which also affected the language situation. Literacy became more widespread among various social classes, especially among the samurai.

Early Modern Japanese

The early modern period in the history of the Japanese language is usually associated with the Edo period (1603–1868), when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. During this time, the country was relatively isolated from the outside world, which contributed to the peculiar development of the language.

An important event occurred in the 16th century: the first Europeans, mainly Portuguese missionaries, arrived in Japan. They brought with them not only a new religion, but also European technologies, goods and, accordingly, new vocabulary. Portuguese borrowings from this period have survived in the Japanese language to this day: “pan” (bread), “tabako” (tobacco), “karuta” (cards) and others.

Portuguese missionaries, seeking to spread Christianity, created the first dictionaries and grammars of the Japanese language. The dictionary "Nippo jisho" (1603), compiled by the missionary João Rodrigues, contained about 32 thousand words and became an important linguistic monument.

During the Edo period, urban culture was actively developing, with Edo (modern Tokyo) becoming its center. A special urban language was formed, which had a significant impact on the further development of the Japanese language. At the same time, differences between regional dialects increased due to limited population mobility in the context of feudal disunity.

During this period, the scientific study of the Japanese language by the Japanese themselves began. Scholars of the "national science" (kokugaku) ​​school, such as Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), studied ancient texts and reconstructed historical phonetics. They worked to restore a "pure" Japanese language, free of Chinese influences.

An important aspect of the linguistic development of this period was the formation of a literary norm based on the Edo dialect, which gradually replaced the previous standard based on the dialect of the Kansai region. This was due to the strengthening of the political and economic importance of Edo as the capital of the shogunate.

Modern Japanese language

The modern stage of the Japanese language’s development began with the Meiji Restoration (1868), which saw the transition from the samurai system of government to the rule of the emperor. This period was characterized by the rapid modernization of Japan, including radical changes in the language.

The Meiji Restoration led to the abolition of the feudal system and profound social reforms. The class structure was reorganized: instead of the previous division into four classes (samurai, peasants, artisans, merchants), two privileged classes (titled and untitled nobility) and a third class of common people were formed. These changes were reflected in the language, especially in the system of address and forms of politeness.

The Meiji period saw the widespread adoption of Western vocabulary related to technology, science, medicine, law, and other fields. The borrowings were adapted to the phonetic system of the Japanese language and were often written in katakana, a syllabary traditionally used for foreign words.

The written language was standardized and simplified. Literary Japanese, which had previously differed significantly from spoken language, began to approach spoken language. This process is known as "genbunichi" - the unity of written and spoken language.

Reforms of the 20th Century Literature

In the 20th century, significant reforms were made to Japanese writing, aimed at simplifying and standardizing it. In 1946, the government issued a list of "toyo-kanji", which included 1,850 hieroglyphs recommended for general use. Hieroglyphs not included in this list were proposed to be replaced with other words or written in a syllabic alphabet.

In 1981, a new list of "joyo-kanji" was adopted, containing 1945 hieroglyphs. In 2010, this list was expanded to 2136 hieroglyphs. Unlike the previous strict regulations, the new list was advisory in nature.

The forms of hieroglyphs were also standardized and some particularly complex signs were simplified. The spelling system was changed: some words began to be written differently in accordance with modern pronunciation.

These reforms significantly increased the literacy rate of the population and made Japanese writing more accessible for study. It is important to note that despite repeated proposals to completely abandon the hieroglyphic system, it remained a key element of Japanese writing, albeit in a simplified form.

Modern language norm

Modern Standard Japanese, known as "Kyotsugo" or "Hyojungo", is based on the Tokyo dialect. It functions as the national language in education, government, media, and literature.

The phonetic system of the modern Japanese language includes 5 vowels and about 15 consonant phonemes. The Japanese language is characterized by the presence of musical stress, which performs a semantically distinctive function.

The grammar of modern Japanese retains an agglutinative character. Important features include strict word order (SOV), the presence of a developed system of postpositions, the absence of grammatical gender and number in nouns, and a complex system of expressing politeness.

The vocabulary of modern Japanese consists of several layers: native Japanese words (wago), Chinese borrowings (kango), and borrowings from Western languages ​​(gairaigo). According to the calculations of the National Institute of Japanese Language Research, kango make up about 60% of the entire vocabulary of the Japanese language.

Lexical borrowings from Western languages

In modern Japanese, a significant portion of the vocabulary is made up of borrowings from Western languages, primarily English. In some areas, such as science, technology, and popular culture, the proportion of such borrowings can reach 30–70%.

Borrowed words are usually adapted to the phonetic system of the Japanese language and written in katakana. The reasons for borrowing are varied: it may be the absence of a corresponding concept in the Japanese language, the desire to internationalize terminology, or the perception of a foreign word as more prestigious and modern.

Interestingly, the meaning of borrowed words sometimes shifts in Japanese. For example, the word "arubaito" (from the German Arbeit - "work") in Japanese means part-time work.

Japanese writing

Japanese writing is a unique system that combines ideographic and syllabic writing. Modern Japanese writing uses three main types of characters: kanji (Chinese characters), hiragana, and katakana (two syllabic alphabets).

History of the development of writing

Before becoming acquainted with Chinese writing, the Japanese did not have their own writing system. The first attempts to use Chinese characters to write Japanese date back to the 5th century AD.

Initially, the Japanese used Chinese characters in several ways. One was to write texts in Chinese using Chinese grammar. Another was to use characters to write Japanese words based on their meaning, but keeping the Japanese syntax. The third was to use characters solely to convey the phonetic sound of Japanese words, without regard to their meaning (man’yogana).

By the 9th century, two syllabic alphabets had been formed on the basis of man’yogana: hiragana and katakana. Hiragana originated from the cursive writing of hieroglyphs and was initially used primarily by women. Katakana, which is simplified fragments of hieroglyphs, was originally used by Buddhist monks to comment on Chinese texts.

By the 12th century, a mixed writing system had developed, combining hieroglyphs and syllabic writing. This principle is preserved in modern Japanese writing. Kanji are used to write the roots of nouns, verbs and adjectives, and hiragana is used for grammatical indicators.

Kanji

Kanji are Chinese characters that were adopted by the Japanese. In Japanese, each character can have several readings, which are divided into two main categories: on’yomi (Sino-Japanese readings) and kun’yomi (native Japanese readings).

On’yomi are readings that are derived from the Chinese pronunciation of characters. They are commonly used in words of Chinese origin and in compound words made up of several characters.

Kun’yomi are native Japanese readings that correspond to Japanese words that existed before the characters were adopted. They are more often used when a character stands alone or is combined with hiragana.

In modern Japanese, a list of 2,136 characters (joyo kanji) is recommended for general use. However, many more characters may be used in specialized texts and proper names.

Hiragana and katakana

Hiragana is a syllabary alphabet consisting of 46 basic characters. Each character represents a syllable, usually consisting of a consonant and a vowel, or only a vowel. Hiragana is used to write grammatical indicators, function words, and words for which there is no generally accepted hieroglyphic writing or which would be too complex to write in hieroglyphs.

Katakana is also a syllabary of 46 basic characters that have the same sound value as the corresponding hiragana characters. Katakana is used primarily to write borrowed words, foreign names and titles, and to create emphasis (similar to italics or boldface in European languages).

Both syllabaries are the result of simplification of Chinese characters. Hiragana originated from the cursive form of characters, and katakana from their fragments. In modern Japanese, these alphabets are used in parallel with kanji, forming a mixed writing system, which makes Japanese writing one of the most complex in the world.

Reforms of writing

Throughout the 20th century, Japanese writing underwent several reforms aimed at simplifying and standardizing it. The reforms became especially active after World War II.

The reforms included the creation of lists of kanji for general use (toyo kanji and later joyo kanji), standardization of kanji shapes, simplification of spelling rules, and a shift to horizontal writing (left to right) in addition to the traditional vertical writing (top to bottom).

Despite proposals to completely abandon hieroglyphs and switch exclusively to phonetic writing, hieroglyphs remain an important part of Japanese writing. Their use allows us to distinguish the numerous homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings) that the Japanese language is rich in.

In 1866, just before the end of the Edo period, the statesman Maejima Hisoka proposed to the shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu that Japan abandon the use of kanji. Maejima lamented the amount of time students spent memorizing Chinese characters, believing that the time could be used to acquire other knowledge. However, the idea was not put into practice.

Modern writing system

Modern Japanese writing is a mixed system in which kanji, hiragana, and katakana are used simultaneously. Kanji are used to write the roots of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and some adverbs. Hiragana is used to write grammatical markers, function words, and some native Japanese words. Katakana is used for foreign words and names.

Traditionally, Japanese text is written vertically, from top to bottom, with columns arranged from right to left. However, in modern Japan, horizontal writing, from left to right, is also widely used, which is especially typical for scientific texts containing mathematical formulas or Latin letters.

Japanese writing does not use spaces between words. The division of the text into semantic units is achieved by alternating different types of writing (kanji, hiragana, katakana) and using punctuation marks. This principle is preserved in modern Japanese writing, making it one of the most difficult for foreigners to learn.

Dialects of Japanese

The Japanese language is characterized by significant dialectal diversity, due to the geographical isolation of individual regions and historical factors. Japanese dialects differ phonetically, grammatically, and lexically, and the differences between some dialects are so significant that they make mutual understanding between their speakers difficult.

Traditionally, Japanese dialects are divided into two large groups: eastern and western, the border between which runs along the mountain range that crosses the island of Honshu. The eastern dialects include the dialects of the Kanto regions (including Tokyo), Tohoku and Hokuriku. The western dialects include the Kansai dialects (Kyoto, Osaka), Chugoku and Shikoku.

A separate group is made up of the dialects of Kyushu Island, which differ significantly from both the Eastern and Western dialects. A special position is occupied by the Ryukyuan languages ​​(or dialects) of the Ryukyu Islands, which some linguists consider not dialects of Japanese, but separate related languages.

Status of Tokyo dialect

Modern Standard Japanese (Hyojungo) is based on the Tokyo dialect of the Kanto region. Historically, the standard language was based on the dialect of the Kansai region (Kyoto and Osaka), but starting in the 17th century, when the political and economic center of the country moved to Edo (modern Tokyo), the Tokyo dialect began to gain more and more importance.

After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, and especially with the development of public education and mass media in the 20th century, the Tokyo dialect finally became established as the basis of the national standard.

The modern Tokyo dialect differs from the standard language, since the latter is a normalized form used in education and official contexts. The everyday speech of Tokyo residents contains many features not included in the standard norm. Differences between the standard language and regional dialects persist today, despite the influence of the media and the educational system.

Ryukyuan languages

A special place among the dialects of the Japanese language is occupied by the Ryukyuan dialects, common on the Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa. Many linguists consider them not dialects of Japanese, but independent languages, included together with Japanese in the Japanese-Ryukyuan language family.

The Ryukyu languages ​​historically developed in relative isolation from the mainland of Japan. They have retained many archaic features lost in the Japanese language proper, making them valuable material for historical linguistics and the reconstruction of Proto-Japanese.

The Ryukyuan languages ​​are divided into a northern group (Amami-Okinawan) and a southern group (Miyako-Yaeyama). The differences between these groups, as well as between individual languages ​​within the groups, are so significant that mutual understanding between their speakers is difficult or impossible.

Currently, the Ryukyuan languages ​​are endangered due to the spread of Standard Japanese through the education system and the media. However, efforts are being made to preserve and revive them as an important part of cultural heritage.

Preservation of Dialects in Modern Japan

Despite the spread of the standard language, regional dialects continue to play an important role in the linguistic situation of modern Japan. Many Japanese speak both the standard language (for official communication, education, and contacts with residents of other regions) and a local dialect (for everyday communication within their region).

In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in dialects as part of cultural heritage. Research into dialects is being conducted, dictionaries and teaching materials are being created. In some regions, local authorities and public organizations are making efforts to preserve and popularize dialects, especially among young people.

Regional dialects are often used in Japanese popular culture – literature, film, television – to characterize characters and create local color. Dialectal features of speech can indicate a character’s origin, social status, or personality. Thus, dialect diversity remains an important component of Japanese linguistic and cultural identity.

Japanese language in the world

Japanese is one of the most widely spoken languages ​​in the world. In terms of the number of speakers (about 125 million people for whom it is native), Japanese ranks ninth in the world. The total number of speakers of Japanese is estimated at 140 million people.

The vast majority of Japanese speakers live in Japan, where it is the de facto official language, although its status is not legally recognized. There are also significant groups of Japanese speakers in the United States (especially Hawaii and California), Brazil, Peru, and other countries with Japanese diasporas.

Outside Japan, Japanese is taught in many universities and language schools. Interest in studying it is linked to both Japan’s economic situation and the popularity of Japanese culture - anime, manga, Japanese cuisine, martial arts, etc.

Learning Japanese as a Foreign Language

In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in learning Japanese outside of Japan, driven by Japan’s economic success, the globalization of Japanese culture (manga, anime, video games) and the development of tourism.

According to the Japan Foundation, the number of Japanese language learners outside Japan exceeds 3.5 million. The largest groups of Japanese language learners are in China, Indonesia, South Korea, Australia and the United States.

To support Japanese language study abroad, the Japan Foundation administers the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT), organizes teacher training courses, develops teaching materials, and funds research in Japanese linguistics and teaching methods.

Learning Japanese presents certain difficulties for speakers of European languages ​​due to its typological features, complex writing system, and culturally conditioned aspects of communication, such as the system of politeness and indirect style of expression. However, interest in Japanese continues to grow throughout the world.

Influence on other languages ​​and cultures

Japanese has had a significant influence on several other languages, especially in the lexical sphere. Japanese words have been borrowed by other languages ​​primarily in three areas: traditional Japanese culture, cuisine, and modern popular culture.

The first category includes words such as "geisha", "samurai", "kimono", "ikebana", "origami", which denote specific Japanese cultural realities and do not have exact equivalents in other languages. The second category includes names of Japanese dishes and products: "sushi", "sashimi", "tempura", "sake", "tofu". The third category includes terms from the field of anime, manga, video games and other forms of modern Japanese culture.

The influence of Japanese is particularly noticeable in Korean and Chinese, which have long historical ties to Japan and use a similar writing system based on Chinese characters. In the 20th century, many scientific and technical terms created in Japan based on Chinese characters were borrowed back into Chinese and Korean.

In European languages, including Russian, Japanese loanwords are less numerous, but also present, especially in specialized areas related to Japanese culture, technology, or business practices.

Japanese cultural influence has been on the rise since the late 20th century, which is known as Japan’s "soft power." Anime, manga, video games, Japanese fashion, cuisine, and other aspects of Japanese culture have become popular in many countries around the world, which has contributed to the growing interest in the Japanese language and the increase in Japanese loanwords in other languages.