"Art of the Middle Ages" by Pyotr Gnedich, summary

This book is a comprehensive historical chronicle of architecture and painting since the decline of the Roman Empire. The art of various peoples was inextricably intertwined with their religious beliefs, shaping new architectural forms. The book was published in 1897.

The birth of Christian art

During the reign of Tiberius, the Roman Empire plunged into a profound spiritual crisis. The vast monarchy viewed humanity as mere objects, imposing crushing taxes on the conquered lands. The aristocracy’s pursuit of worldly goods led to vast economic inequality. Paganism, with its ostentatious rituals, could no longer console the suffering. The brutal rule of the military deprived ordinary people of hope. In these dire circumstances, a new teaching arose.

Christianity proclaimed the equality of all people before God. Slaves, captives, and prisoners, hundreds of whom were thrown to wild beasts in amphitheaters, acquired faith in eternal life. Every service of the early Christians was accompanied by prayers for those condemned to death. Gradually, communities pooled their resources to help the disadvantaged.

Alexandria long remained the center of ancient learning. Aristocrats gathered at the gates of the academy to listen to the lectures of Hypatia, the daughter of the mathematician Theon. The girl commented on philosophical teachings. Locals considered her a true sorceress. Bishop Theophilus waged an uncompromising struggle against paganism. One day, a mob of religious fanatics attacked Hypatia at the entrance to the academy. The rioters tore off her clothes, dragged her into the church, and killed her. The reader Peter struck her on the head with a club. This event in 414 marked the collapse of Greek philosophy.

Byzantine and Sassanid architecture

Byzantium inherited Roman building traditions, but transformed their essence. Ravenna’s churches, such as San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, were adorned with magnificent mosaics. Craftsmen depicted Emperor Justinian and biblical scenes using pieces of stained glass. Classical grace gave way to strict canons and the stern faces of saints.

In the third century, the Sassanid Empire arose from the ruins of Central Asian culture. Persian architects attempted to recreate the forgotten grandeur of ancient structures. They combined Eastern imagination with Roman technical achievements. The Sassanids erected massive buildings, deliberately avoiding the effete forms of Byzantine architecture. Their palaces became a transitional link between the art of antiquity and the architecture of the Islamic world.

Muslim East

Numerous heresies weakened the Church’s influence in the East. Arians, Nestorians, and Monophysites were constantly at odds. At this time, Muhammad gathered an army and marched on Damascus. After his death, the caliphs continued their conquests. In 638, the general Amru captured Alexandria, and the Arabs then subjugated Syria, Persia, and lands as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Caliph Omar entered Jerusalem on a red camel.

The Arabs were known for their religious tolerance. They reduced taxes and allowed Christians to worship. Conquered peoples accepted the new faith. A short phrase about the one God and his prophet was enough to do so. The invaders absorbed the knowledge of the conquered civilizations. Caliph Al-Rashid issued a decree forbidding the construction of mosques without educational institutions. The best astronomers, mathematicians, and doctors worked at the court of Al-Mansur.

The rulers’ palaces were astonishingly magnificent. Tens of thousands of carpets hung in the halls, and tame lions strolled on golden chains near the thrones. Moorish art flourished with incredible vigor. Muslim builders erected elegant mosques adorned with geometric patterns. One Greek ambassador described with amazement a reception with an Arab king. During the audience, a hidden mechanism quietly raised the ruler’s throne to the very ceiling.

Culture of Ancient Rus’

The Arab travelers Masudi and Ibn Fadlan left descriptions of the Slavs. Rus’ settlements were surrounded by barbed wire fences. The locals were tall and had fair hair. They did not know writing and used cows and sheep as currency. Men wore their clothes slung over one shoulder, leaving their right arm free.

With the adoption of Christianity, Byzantine and Georgian influences came to Rus’. Stone churches began to be built in Kyiv, Novgorod, Vladimir, and Suzdal. The Ascension Cathedral and the Dormition Cathedral became models of a new aesthetic. Russian icon painters such as Dionysius and Andrei Rublev created works of astonishing depth. The icons of Our Lady of Smolensk and Our Lady of Vladimir served as unquestionable canons.

The attire of the clergy remained an important part of spiritual life. Schema-monks wore black mantles, koukuls with white crosses, and long analavs. Prayers and images of Adam’s heads were embroidered on their vestments. Secular festive costumes were also distinguished by their rich embellishments.

Of particular note is the unique double throne of the young tsars Peter and Ivan Alekseevich. It was created in the seventeenth century out of urgent political necessity. Craftsmen crafted two different crowns specifically for the rulers. One brother received the Siberian Crown, and the other a headdress somewhat reminiscent of Monomakh’s Cap. The throne itself was adorned with jewels and intricate carvings.

Romanesque and Gothic styles

For seven centuries, Rome united the lands around the Mediterranean. The pursuit of sensual pleasures led the mighty state to decline. Wild hordes of barbarians swarmed from the north and east, wiping out ancient culture. Vast territories were desolate, fields overgrown with tall grass. The conquerors built impregnable feudal castles and plundered the local peasantry.

The Romanesque style developed in the harsh conditions of the early Middle Ages. Thick stone walls and narrow windows provided reliable protection from enemy raids. Later, the Crusades introduced Europeans to Moorish culture. These massive forms began to evolve. Architects sought ways to make the interiors of buildings taller and brighter.

Romanesque architecture gave way to sublime Gothic. Builders learned to distribute the weight of walls using pointed arches. Famous Christian churches soared. Cologne Cathedral surpassed the Egyptian Great Pyramid of Giza in height. Notre Dame de Paris, Strasbourg Cathedral, and Westminster Abbey became the pinnacle of engineering of the time. Inside, a mysterious light spilled through enormous stained-glass windows.

The sculptural decoration of cathedrals changed. Classical Greek grace gave way to anatomical distortions and general angularity. The figures of saints became elongated and rather gaunt. Statues were painted red and blue, their vestments gilded. Frightening images of devils and fantastical dragons appeared on consoles and capitals. These creatures bared their teeth and made impossible grimaces.